Hume’s Is–Ought Problem
Good thinking separates facts from values. When an argument moves from what is true to what we ought to do, look for the hidden value premise.
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History
History of the Lands
R. G. Collingwood
Collingwood helped show that history is not just collecting facts. It is the disciplined reconstruction of past human thought and action from surviving evidence.
Albert Einstein (1879 to 1955)
Einstein taught us that mass and energy are two forms of the same thing and that gravity is better understood as the curvature of spacetime that guides motion.
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John Snow and the Broad Street Pump
The story of John Snow in 1854 reminds us that good reasoning lets confidence follow evidence, not fear, habit, or public assumption.
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Galileo: Observation Corrects the Map
In 1610, Galileo set incorrect maps of the cosmos on the right path. Our mental model of Earth at the center of the universe had to evolve to match observations.
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Max Planck
Planck discovered limits by following the math honestly—even when it contradicted intuition.
Nicolas Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus lived quietly, worked carefully, and changed the universe without ever seeing the revolution he began.
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Chimpanzee-Bonobo Split
A river can redirect evolution. When the Congo River separated ancestral Pan populations, isolation turned one family line into two closely related but distinct ape species.
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Divje Babe Flute
Location: Divje Babe Cave, Slovenia Attribution: Possibly Neanderthal Material: Bear femur Discovered in the 1990s, this flute-like artifact features holes resembling those used for producing music. If confirmed as a flute, it would suggest that Neanderthals possessed musical traditions. However, some scholars argue these holes might be from animal activity. The Divje Babe flute continues
Earliest Known Toothpicks
Homo habilis, one of the earliest known human ancestors, emerged around 2.3 million years ago with a brain size significantly larger than modern chimpanzees. By around 1.8 million years ago, they became the first species known to use toothpicks for dental hygiene, alongside their advanced tool use for specific tasks like skinning animals and cutting
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Dispilio Tablet: European Proto-Writing
About 7,260 Years Ago someone created the Dispilio Tablet. Discovered in 1993 in the Neolithic Settlement of Dispilio in Greece. It is an ancient wooden tablet, etched with intricate symbols, yet to be deciphered,
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Sunghir Burial Site
The Sungir Burial Site, dating back to around 30,000 BCE, offers a remarkable glimpse into the lives of Upper Paleolithic humans in what is now Russia. The people of Sungir were part of a sophisticated hunter-gatherer society, living in the cold climate of the Russian Plain. They were highly skilled artisans and craftsmen, evidenced by
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Vinor Circular Building: a roundel
Europe, Czech Republic: The Vinor Circular Building, discovered in Vinoř, Prague, is a remarkable archaeological site dating back to approximately 900 years before the common Biblical creation date. This Neolithic structure, known as a roundel, consists of three concentric trenches forming a large circular enclosure with multiple entrances. With an internal diameter of about 55
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Cuban Underwater City: More Research Needed
The sea offers tremendous resources and stability. The rising and receding oceans continue to destroy the homes of many. How many unknown cultures in our vast history thrived on the coast for millennia? The site discovered off the coast of Cuba, also known as the “Cuban Underwater Pyramids,” includes pyramid-like structures and other geometric formations
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Fuente Magna Bowl: Forgery or Real?
The Fuente Magna Bowl, discovered in 1950 near Lake Titicaca, Bolivia, is a large stone vessel with intricate carvings. Unearthed by a local farmer, the bowl was later donated to a small local museum and eventually transferred to the Museum of Precious Metals in La Paz. The bowl features engravings that some claim resemble ancient
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Oldest Known Dice: Skara Brae
Dice as old as 5,100 years ago illustrate how simple ideas can emerge independently and spread widely: a clear case of convergent invention and cultural transmission.
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Atlit Yam Neolithic Village
Atlit Yam is a captivating ghost town submerged beneath the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. This ancient Neolithic village, dating back over 9,000 years, offers a unique window into the lives of these coastal inhabitants. Abandoned in a hurry, the site was left with many belongings and food sources still intact, offering a unique
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Proto-Inca People
The Proto-Inca people likely lived in the Andean region of Peru as far back as 4500 BCE. It’s reasonable to assume they were hunter-gatherers, adapted to the challenging mountain environment. They may have had a nomadic lifestyle, following the seasonal migration of animals and plants. The Proto-Inca people likely developed early forms of textiles, ceramics,
Inca Society Emerges
The Inca civilization only lasted a few centuries from about 1200 CE. In that short period it became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. It emerged in the Andean region of present-day Peru. The early Incas established the city of Cusco as their capital. They expanded rapidly, by the 15th century they developed an extensive
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Proto-Maya People
The Proto-Maya people likely inhabited the Yucatan region of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras around 3500 BCE. It’s reasonable to assume they were also hunter-gatherers, taking advantage of the area’s diverse wildlife and plant resources. They may have had a more settled lifestyle, with early evidence of ceramics and permanent settlements. The Proto-Maya people likely