30 Phil, Chapter 1 Touchstone 2: Free Will.

There are two basic types of Free Will. Determinism says everything that happens is set in stone and can’t be changed; in contrast, indeterminism says people and animals make choices. There are four basic types: scientific determinism, scientific indeterminism, fatalism, and providence.

30 Phil, Chapter 2 Touchstone 5: Knowledge Framework.

In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology. It’s important because knowledge describes reality, and understanding how we craft knowledge brings philosophical clarity. Each of us maintains a personal knowledge framework that arranges the knowledge we accumulate. You can think of it as a personalized dictionary. But unlike a dictionary, the definitions are far from sterile. Each entry is imbued with your unique perspective including a tapestry of direct and indirect experiences, retained memories and emotions.

30 Phil, Chapter 3 Touchstone 7: Ontology.

Ontology: When we’re alive, life feels endless, stretching beyond the horizon of our imagination. The realization that it must end is not easily accepted. We’re not just sentient beings; we are self-aware. For many, the notion that we cease to exist after death is unbearable. We can’t help but wonder if we’re special; if something inside us continues even when our bodies stop. It’s about the human instinct for self-preservation extending beyond life. We lean into beliefs that promise we might continue in some form. This sphere of thought is called Ontology.

In the vibrant intellectual climate of Ancient Greece, the 6th century BCE marks the embryonic stage of formal logic, attributed to the philosopher Thales of Miletus (around 624-546 BCE). Thales, recognized as the first of the Seven Sages of Greece, embarked on a quest that laid the foundational stones of logical thought. He shifted the explanation of natural phenomena away from mythological interpretations towards rational principles.

30 Phil, Chapter 4, Laozi, Touchstone 10: Authenticity.

Ziran is often translates to “of its own.” Living in accordance with Ziran means you embrace naturalness. You welcome the spontaneous aspects of existence. With Ziran, you flow with nature while embracing your true self and innate tendencies, your authentic self. Living in accordance with Ziran is you attaining a state of inner peace, balance, and harmony. By cultivating a deep connection with the natural world and allowing things to unfold organically, you can experience the intrinsic flow of the Dao. For example, a conversation that unfolds without order and a musician improvising both exemplify Ziran.

30 Phil, Chapter 5, Confucius, Touchstone 13: Normalcy.

Normalcy refers to the standards or patterns established through repeated experiences and societal norms, serving as a baseline for judging deviations. Our concept of “normal” influences how we label and react to the world, shaping our perceptions of what is good, bad, or different. These norms are formed from personal and collective experiences, and they can evolve as we challenge ingrained prejudices and expand our acceptance of diversity. Understanding normalcy helps us recognize how our labels impact our interactions and views of the world.

This view of normal overlaps with existing ideas, including David Hume’s Bundle Theory as well as with behavioral philosophy which considers normalcy as a normative foundation, focusing on individual perceptions and experiences within a broader behavioral context.

30 Phil, Chapter 6, Buddhism, Touchstone 15: Illusion: Self and Non-self.

The Buddhist terms of Atman and Anatman relate to the idea of “Self,” or “Atman,” your eternal soul and the Buddhist doctrine of “Non-Self,” or “Anātman.” To understand non-self, you have to understand the concept of “emptiness,” which refers to the idea that nothing lasts forever. “Non-self” says what we consider our “self” does not exist. What we perceive as an unchanging “self” or “soul,” is actually a collection of ever-changing physical and mental components, such as form, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness. There is no enduring “I,” existing independently of these aggregates.

30 Phil, Chapter 7, Heraclitus, Touchstone 17: Impermanence and Flux.

Impermanence as Flux is the idea of an ever-changing nature of life and the interconnectedness of all things. It is summed up as:

“Everything is in flux.”

Like the idea a “river,” everything flows. The only constant is change, and to resist it is to resist the natural order of things.

30 Phil, Chapter 7, Heraclitus, Touchstone 17: Identity.

Identity is the personal mosaic of attributes that set you apart as an individual. Your identity is shaped by the worldview you embrace and mold. It encompasses the world you were born into — encompassing aspects like gender, ethnicity, and nationality — and extends to your personal choices, including affiliations, accumulated knowledge, and even your preferences in entertainment. It also includes aspects that evolve and change on your journey including such things as your current age, where you choose to live, and how you make a living. It’s a complex interplay of internal and external factors. You are born without a predetermined essence or nature. It’s only through our experiences—through the act of living—that we define our essence, our identity.

30 Phil, Chapter 8, Plato, Touchstone 21: Ignorance is Bliss.

The concept of “Ignorance is bliss” says being uninformed or unaware of certain truths can lead to greater happiness. Take, for example, germophobes—people who are excessively concerned about germs. Constant awareness and meticulous research about germs and contamination could elevate their levels of stress, affecting both mental and physical health. 

30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 23: Rationalism.

Rationalism emphasizes reason and a priori knowledge—knowledge you are born with—as the primary means of understanding reality. It says truths can be known independently of experience and that reason alone can provide an understanding of the world.

30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 25: Logic.

Formal logic is originated in Greece, and Aristotle is considered one of the most important figures in its early development. Aristotle’s work on logic, which is primarily contained in his collection of works known as the, “Organon” (meaning “instrument” or “tool”), formalized many of the principles of deductive reasoning that are still in use today.

30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 27: Eudaimonia.

Eudaimonia is happiness achieved through a flourishing life of virtue, including developing moral and intellectual faculties to their fullest potential; and is the best way to live. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined the goal of life as eudaimonia, attainable through a life of rational activity guided by virtue. To flourish, one must make balanced choices that avoid extremes—a concept he called the “golden mean.” In my “good intent-good results” anchor device, Eudaimonia focuses on “good intent.” Aristotle teaches you that the results of your actions will generally be good if you act virtuously. He believed that humans inherently strive for it, with a virtuous life being the most reliable path. In simpler terms, humans seek a life filled with purpose, moral virtue, and a sense of lasting accomplishment. 

For me, Aristotle’s Eudaimonia takes on a deeper meaning. Although eudaimonia is often translated as “happiness,” it signifies a deeper state of flourishing now and into the future. Aristotle hinted at the importance of the value of external things like friends, wealth, and power. Things like your contributions to society as part of fulfilling your role in the community. This can be as simple as a fulfilling career, pursuing a meaningful hobby, or even living a life reading books. Although Aristotle hinted at the future void and legacy, his eudaimonia was not directly tied to it. 

For me, eudaimonia ripples into the unknown void. A concept I call “Holistic Eudaimonia,” an all-encompassing approach to well-being.

30 Phil, Chapter 10, Pyrrho of Elis, Touchstone 29: Social Constructs.

A social construct is a shared, non-natural belief created and maintained by groups that shape reality. These are cultural blueprints that encompass shared ideas and frameworks. Many aspects of the world exist independently of humanity and are not social constructs, such as stars, animal reproduction, and gravity. In contrast, things that do not exist in nature and are social constructs include marriage, language, and money.

30 Phil, Chapter 11, Epicurus, Touchstone 30: Agnosticism.

Agnostics assert that it is impossible to either prove or disprove certain claims, such as the existence of unicorns, ghosts, or Valhalla. Within OVM, Agnosticism is the empiricist view that sits between true believers and true skeptics. OVM is one of the Five Thought Tools in the TST Framework.

Epicurean Agnosticism: Epicureans generally lean toward agnosticism, showing indifference to unknowable mysteries. They argue that pondering such mysteries likely leads to unhappiness. Epicureanism does not advocate for agnosticism as a dogmatic belief, but rather as a practical approach to dealing with the unknowable.

30 Phil, Chapter 12, Philo of Alexandria, Touchstone 32: Allegorical Interpretation.

Allegorical interpretation is the process of understanding the symbolic meaning behind a text or story. It is a literary technique in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities.

30 Phil, Chapter 13, Marcus Aurelius, Touchstone 34: Negative Visualization.

It is not external events, but our thoughts about them, that cause distress. Many of us don’t truly appreciate our family, friends, and possessions so visualizing their absence increases appreciation for them. Negative visualization finds a modern counterpart in “defensive pessimism,” a cognitive strategy in psychology. You start by casting your gaze ahead, pinpointing potential hiccups in your journey. You then explore those scenarios.

30 Phil, Chapter 14, Badarayana, Touchstone 36: Cause and Effect.

While karma carries spiritual connotations, cause-and-effect is the non-religious equivalent. From this perspective, cause and effect represents the idea that every action has a reaction, and that our choices and behaviors will inevitably have consequences. 

The ethical implications imply a personal responsibility and acceptance of consequences. The results of our good and bad actions highlight the importance of focusing on good intent, as our actions have a direct impact on our well-being and the well-being of others.

30 Phil, Chapter 15, Saint Augustine, Touchstone 38: Chronoception.

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, time is intertwined with space in a four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. However, our experiencing of it is called chronoception. Augustine was one of the first to describe time as a subjective experience. Today we know it is influenced by a variety of factors, including our attention, memory, and emotions, as well as things like light and noise. Time is commonly perceived as something external, an attribute of reality. Augustine brought an introspective approach asserting the “sense” of time is within us. 

30 Phil, Chapter 16, Al-Farabi, Touchstone 40: Intellect.

Intellect refers to the ability to reason and understand objectively, particularly with regard to abstract or academic matters. Al-Farabi delineated human understanding into three phases: the potential, actual, and acquired. His insights laid the groundwork for today’s understanding, a roadmap for how our thinking grows over time.

The Potential Intellect is the inherent capacity within us all to absorb and process information, much like an empty library of shelves waiting to be filled with books. The Actual Intellect is the activated potential within us, the process of transforming information into knowledge and understanding. It’s like a library that’s started filling its shelves with books, each one signifying a new concept, fact, or perspective grasped. The Acquired Intellect is the advanced state of understanding where knowledge and insight spring forth from an internal wellspring, echoing a sense of innate wisdom. Imagine a comprehensive library that becomes a center for creating knowledge itself.

30 Phil, Chapter 17, Alhazen, Touchstone 43: Perception.

Perception is the process by which your brain interprets sensory information. While senses give you direct information, your perception gives you indirect understanding.

30 Phil, Chapter 18, Peter Abelard, Touchstone 46: Pattern Recognition.

Humans possess an extraordinary ability to identify patterns both in nature as well as in our minds. It is fundamental to how we understand the world, and at the core of the universals debate. Building on pattern recognition, our minds also engage in pattern ranking. Allowing us to hierarchically organize the patterns we perceive.

30 Phil, Chapter 23, Roger Williams, Touchstone 57: Separation of Church and State.

More than a historical or religious treatise, the Bloody Tenet by Roger Williams is a seminal work. It launched a full-throttle assault on the prevailing norms of religious and political intolerance that plagued both Old and New England. In it, he passionately argued for the separation of church and state insisting that governments had no role in regulating thought or belief. One of Williams’ most evocative lines was the call for separation:

“…a hedge or wall of separation between the Garden of the Church and the Wilderness of the world.”

30 Phil, Chapter 20, Francis Bacon, Touchstone 51: The Scientific Method.

Science is the ongoing study of nature through observation. It’s that simple. If you see something new in nature, that’s science. Many definitions of science tend to intertwine the “how,” but the “how” is perpetually evolving, just like science itself remains a continual journey, never settling into dogma. Currently, we call the advanced systematic “how” of science the scientific method. It is an iterative process that uses controlled observation, induction and deduction, controlled testing with falsifiability, modeling, and peer review to understand objective reality.

30 Phil, Chapter 24, Locke, Touchstone 64: Natural Rights.

Natural Rights are the inherent rights in our nature that all people have simply by being human. They are not externally granted.

30 Phil, Chapter 21, Galileo, Touchstone 53: Infinitesimal.

The infinitesimal is a form of infinity representing a theoretical value that is infinitely close to zero but not zero itself. Galileo Galilei discussed concepts related to the infinitesimal in his work “Two New Sciences”. In this work, he explored the foundations of kinematics and the strength of materials, addressing ideas that touched upon the nature of infinitely small quantities and their applications in science.

30 Phil, Chapter 22: In this new look at Descartes thought experiment, we first take a look at his hyperbolic doubt, and then run his thought experiment a second time using rational doubt transforming his thought experiment from the irrational to the rational.

30 Phil, Chapter 25, Spinoza, Touchstone 66: Material-Spiritual Framework.

The Material-Spiritual Framework explores the interplay between the material world and spiritual beliefs. It allows for an open-minded exploration of spirituality and religion, incorporating a personal journey that integrates the empirical, rational, and irrational to form a cohesive worldview.

The Material World is the only realm we know firsthand. Spirituality represents anything larger than the material world and ourselves. It encompasses the currently unknown, the unknowable, and non-physical aspects like consciousness and soul. The Material-Spiritual Framework divides spirituality into agnostic, nontheistic, and theistic. Agnostic Spirituality asserts that nature is purely natural without spiritual guidance. Nontheistic Spirituality asserts the universe has a spiritual essence without supernatural beings. Finally, Theistic Spirituality asserts one or more supernatural beings exist, with more than one realm possible.

30 Phil, Chapter 24, Locke, Touchstone 61: The Social Contract.

The social contract emerges out of natural rights and civil government. A government formed by the “collective will” of the people specifically to protect these rights. Citizens consent to be governed, but this consent comes with the stipulation that their inalienable rights must be respected and safeguarded.

30 Phil, Chapter 26, Voltaire, Touchstone 68: Journalism.

Journalism serves as a check on power, and is one of the Truth Hammers. Unlike the scientific method, which is grounded in experimentation, journalism thrives on investigation and storytelling. It doesn’t just present facts; it contextualizes them, weaving narratives that help society understand complex issues.

30 Phil, Chapter 28, Kant, Touchstone 73: Categorical Imperative.

The Categorical Imperative says you should act only in a manner that you would be comfortable seeing transformed into a universal law.

30 Phil, Chapter 27, Hume, Touchstone 70: The Problem of Induction.

The logic behind induction is inherently circular, hence, the problem of induction. We expect future events to be like past events because this has generally been true in the past. This justification itself is inductive, making the whole process circular and self-referential. Although induction works effectively in predictable ways, the problem of induction remains a captivating puzzle without an easy solution.

30 Phil, Chapter 24, Locke, Touchstone 62: Checks and Balances.

For the preservation of individual liberty and the prevention of tyranny, political power must be distributed among different branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial. It is grounded in the idea that human nature is easily corruptible and concentrating power is dangerous. This diversification embodies the philosophical idea of checks and balances and ensures that no single authority goes unchecked.

30 Phil, Chapter 29, Mill, Touchstone 74: Harm Principle.

You’re free to do what you want, as long as you don’t harm others. It delineates between self-regarding and other-regarding actions as a basis for when societal intervention is justified. Self-regarding actions are those that primarily affect the individual who undertakes them. Other-regarding actions have broader social consequences, impacting others. 

30 Phil, Chapter 30, Nietzsche, Touchstone 76: Übermensch.

The Übermensch, or superman, is the ideal person who transcends societal norms and self-imposed limitations. They overcome the existing values and moralities of society, creating their own values, and living in a way that is true to themselves.

30 Phil, Chapter 30: In this telling of Nietzsche ideas, we take a new look at it and forge it into a five-step authentic recipe. Step one is the Übermensch. It is often translated as the “Overman” or “Superman.” It is a call to individual empowerment and liberation from societal norms and traditional values. Step two in building your authentic self is the breaking of deeply held beliefs, which can cause an existential crisis. Step three is to use the vacuum of the abyss, the void, to add meaning to your life. The goal is not to dwell in Nihilism, but to approach the abyss as close as needed. Step four is about purging the bad and keeping the good. It is the most potent tool Nietzsche offers for the purpose of self-examination. The Eternal Recurrence. Step five, the final step, is about striving towards a life led authentically, a life worthy of infinite repetition. Once the illusions have been dismantled, the final stage involves constructing your authentic self. 

Heidegger’s existentialism centers on the concept of “being-there” (Dasein), which refers to the unique way humans exist and relate to the world. Heidegger explores the nature of being and emphasizes the importance of understanding one’s own existence within the context of time and space. His philosophy delves into the idea of being authentic by confronting the inherent uncertainties and anxieties of life, and seeking a deeper understanding of one’s place in the world through introspection and connection to nature.

Sartre’s existentialism emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and responsibility. It posits that existence precedes essence, meaning that individuals are not defined by any preexisting essence but instead create their own essence through actions and decisions. Sartre’s philosophy focuses on the concept of “bad faith,” where people deny their freedom by conforming to societal expectations, and encourages living authentically by embracing one’s freedom and making deliberate, conscious choices.