While we don’t know for sure, most scholars agree that the Buddha did not literally believe in Mount Meru or the six realms. Yes, these were common beliefs of the time—and still are for some today—but the Buddha’s concepts of rebirth, self, and non-self suggest he used these ideas more as teaching tools than literal truths.
First, the history. In ancient India, Mount Meru was believed to be the literal cosmic mountain at the center of the universe, with its peak touching the heavens and its base rooted deep in the underworld. Surrounding Mount Meru were the six realms of existence: heavenly realms of gods, human and animal realms, the realm of hungry ghosts, and hellish realms. Today, some still hold these beliefs literally, while many others view them symbolically, using them as part of their moral guide. These realms represent cycles of rebirth, where beings are reincarnated based on their karma. This cosmology shaped much of ancient Indian belief, influencing religious traditions like Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and later Sikhism. For many, even today, these realms remain literal places mapping the soul’s journey across lifetimes.
The Buddha incorporated local beliefs about Mount Meru and the six realms into his teachings, but his focus was always on essence, not the self, being reborn. In Buddhism, essence refers to the underlying energy of existence, contrasting with reincarnation, which implies a soul is reborn. His teachings emphasized overcoming suffering and attaining enlightenment in this life, not the afterlife.