Confucius once said,
“In learning and straightway practicing, is there not pleasure also?”
This quote opens chapter 1 of book 1 of The Analects, a compilation of the sayings and ideas of Confucius. His words, simple yet profound, have resonated throughout centuries, influencing not only Chinese thought but also shaping global philosophies on ethics, governance, and personal virtue.
In this article, we’ll explore his life, ancient oral traditions, the original two schools of Confucianism, and the first three sayings from The Analects. Along the way, we’ll see how his wisdom can still inspire us today.
Part 1: The Life of Confucius
Confucius, born as Kong Qiu in 551 BCE, lived in a time of political instability and societal transformation. Though his teachings were embraced only after his death, he sowed the seeds of a philosophical legacy that would shape Chinese culture for millennia. The Latin name “Confucius” became common much later, thanks to Jesuit missionaries introducing his work to the West.
Early Life and Influences
We know very little about his early life. For sure, Confucius was not raised in luxury. As the son of a low-ranking official, he didn’t have the social status that would have secured him a privileged education. His father died when he was just three, leaving the family in poverty. This hardship likely shaped his later emphasis on self-cultivation, discipline, and resilience. He was driven by an innate curiosity and an insatiable appetite for knowledge, studying a variety of subjects including history, music, and ritual traditions. Confucius believed that through learning and moral development, anyone, regardless of birth or wealth, could achieve greatness—a concept revolutionary for his time.
A Teacher at Heart
Although not mentioned in The Analect, by tradition, Kong Qiu’s formal career began in education. At a young age, he gathered students eager to learn, and unlike many scholars of his time, Confucius believed in educating anyone with the will to study, regardless of their social standing. This egalitarian approach was one of the earliest markers of his philosophy.
The Public Servant
For decades, Confucius held various administrative roles. He managed public granaries, oversaw construction projects, and worked in different capacities within the government. Known for his diligence, fairness, and efficiency, he demonstrated an ability to apply his philosophical ideals to real-world problems. This period in his life likely sharpened his understanding of governance and the complexities of managing human affairs.
However, despite his success in these roles, Confucius became increasingly frustrated with the corruption and moral decay he saw in the political systems of the time. Around the year 498 BCE, at the age of about 53, he left government service, disillusioned and seeking deeper fulfillment in his teaching and philosophy.
A Life of Wandering and Teaching
Following his departure from public office, Confucius spent nearly two decades wandering from state to state across China. He offered his counsel to various rulers, though his idealistic views on governance—emphasizing virtue and moral leadership over coercion and power—were not widely embraced during his lifetime. Nonetheless, his reputation as a sage teacher grew, and he continued to attract disciples who would carry on his teachings.
It was during this later period of his life that Confucius likely refined his key philosophical ideas. The themes of duty, discipline, and ethical leadership became central to his thinking, and he remained committed to the belief that a ruler’s primary responsibility was to lead through moral example rather than force.
His lessons were practical and grounded in the realities of life, always focusing on virtues such as ren (benevolence), li (proper conduct), and xiao (filial piety). His students weren’t just passive recipients of his wisdom. Confucius engaged with them in dialogue, and many of his teachings were recorded as responses to questions posed by his disciples. This makes The Analects not just a book of sayings, but a dynamic record of intellectual exchange, a kind of early Socratic method applied within the Chinese context. While it’s difficult to pinpoint the duration of time covered in The Analects, most believe it focuses on at least his last 5 or more years.
Legacy and Influence
Confucius died in 479 BCE at the age of 72, having spent much of his life spreading his teachings and striving to influence political systems with his moral ideals. Yet, despite his best efforts, Confucius did not achieve the widespread recognition he desired during his lifetime. While he left behind a group of loyal disciples, it wasn’t until centuries later that his ideas gained official prominence.
The turning point came during the Han Dynasty, beginning in 206 BCE, when Confucianism was adopted as the official state ideology around 136 BCE. It was at this point that Confucius’s teachings began to permeate Chinese society on a large scale, forming the bedrock of Chinese educational, social, and political systems. His ideas became deeply embedded in Chinese culture, influencing everything from family dynamics to government structure.
The life of Confucius serves as a reminder of the power of perseverance and the importance of education. Despite personal struggles and political frustrations, he remained dedicated to his principles. His philosophy of self-cultivation and his belief that anyone could achieve moral excellence resonates across time and culture.
As I often remind my readers, and for those familiar with my Holistic Eudaimonia, when you live in a way that embodies your ideals, you send positive ripples into a future you will never witness. Confucius is a prime example of this; his teachings continued to grow and shape the world long after his time.
Part 2: The Power of Ancient Oral Traditions
Although writing systems existed during Confucius’s time, and he referenced ancient texts like The Book of Documents and The Book of Songs, much of the wisdom passed down to us from that era emerged through oral traditions. Confucius taught during a period when written records were still rare, and oral storytelling remained the dominant method of preserving and transmitting knowledge.
Oral tradition wasn’t just a way to communicate—it was the bedrock of how humanity shared its stories, ideas, and teachings for millennia. Long before written language, humans relied on this rich oral heritage to convey everything from how to make an axe to philosophical ideas on how to live a life well-lived. In fact, oral traditions like what we are discussing here go back at least tens of thousands of years, possibly even further.
The Ancient Roots of Oral Tradition
Modern cognitive science suggests that by around 50,000 years ago, humans had developed cognitive abilities comparable to our own. This means that long before the invention of writing, early humans were capable of complex thought and storytelling. However, it’s likely that oral traditions reach back much further, potentially to 440,000 years ago, during the time of the common ancestor of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
Confucius, like many great teachers before and after him, relied on oral traditions to share his philosophy with his disciples. He likely taught through conversation and discussion, with students memorizing his words and ideas. This wasn’t merely casual storytelling, but a highly precise and respected method of preserving knowledge. Oral traditions were honored, and accuracy was paramount. For early human societies, any deviation from the original transmission of these teachings was typically met with resistance.
Oral Tradition and Confucianism
Confucius’s teachings, like many others from the time, were initially preserved through this method. Although some of his sayings were likely recorded during his lifetime, it wasn’t until after his death that his disciples and their followers compiled his teachings into written texts, most notably The Analects. His philosophical legacy was shaped and spread primarily through oral exchanges long before it was written down.
His disciples, spread across regions and generations, carried forward the heart of his teachings with precision toward the underlying core ideas. Yes, different disciples emphasized different aspects of his wisdom, but the core philosophy—the values of virtue, discipline, and proper conduct—remained intact.
Confucianism wasn’t the only philosophy passed down orally. In China, traditions like Daoism, Mohism, and Legalism also thrived in a largely oral culture. Many of these schools of thought, like Confucianism, eventually found their way into written texts, but their origin was firmly rooted in oral transmission.
A Global Oral Tradition
This reliance on oral tradition wasn’t unique to China. Across the world, some of humanity’s greatest philosophical and religious systems were passed down orally for centuries before they were ever committed to writing. In India, the Vedic texts, the philosophical backbone of Hinduism, as well as the early teachings of Buddhism, were transmitted orally. In Persia, the teachings of Zoroaster, known as Zoroastrianism, were also shared through oral tradition long before they were written down.
Even though some of these ancient masters were educated and likely wrote down fragments of their teachings, the oral tradition remained “the way” to pass down knowledge. It was seen as the most trusted and respected method for transmitting ideas from one generation to the next. In these traditions, the spoken word was sacred, and the memory of the teacher was honored by ensuring their ideas were passed on with precision.
The Importance of Oral Tradition in Early Humanity
This leads to an intriguing thought: how many masters, throughout history, created profound oral traditions that lasted for generations—maybe even for millennia—only to disappear before the invention of writing? How much wisdom was shared, refined, and taught with incredible precision, only to be lost to time long before it could be recorded?
Before the written word, before what we now consider “history,” there were likely countless oral traditions rich in philosophy, science, and spiritual teachings that vanished. The memory of those teachings may have faded, but their impact on human development and culture remains, carried forward like ripples of a rock thrown into a pond. All of it, from individual families to communities, blended together to forge future social constructs.
Takeaway: The Enduring Legacy of Oral Tradition
Here is the first major takeaway: Oral tradition was the way of humanity until writing systems took over.
Whether a specific tradition was focused on language or ideas, we can trust in the precision of these oral traditions because they were more than stories—they were carefully preserved repositories of knowledge. Confucius’s philosophy, passed down with care, became an enduring part of Chinese culture, and many other ancient philosophies followed the same path.
Part 3: The Emergence of Two Schools of Confucian Thought
After the death of great masters like Confucius and Gautama Buddha, their teachings lived on through their disciples and, eventually, through schools of thought that sought to preserve and expand their philosophies. In both Buddhism and Confucianism, this resulted in the emergence of two dominant schools, each interpreting the original teachings in different ways, while still honoring the core ideas of their founders.
In the case of Buddhism, two primary schools—Theravada and Mahayana—developed after Buddha’s death. These schools, while differing in their interpretations and approaches, aimed to preserve the exact words of Gautama Buddha, but with varying interpretation. At times, their interpretations of his words created diametrically opposed ideas. Theravada Buddhism tends to emphasize a more traditional and individual-focused approach to enlightenment, while Mahayana Buddhism expands on the idea of compassion and collective salvation.
A similar divergence happened with Confucianism after Confucius’s death. About a century later, during the 3rd century BCE, two schools emerged as the dominant interpreters of his teachings: the Mengzi (Mencius) school and the Xunzi school. These schools reflect two different understandings of human nature and how moral development should be approached within the Confucian framework.
Mengzi: Confucius’s Faithful Successor
The philosopher Mengzi (Latinized as Mencius) is often seen as the most faithful interpreter of Confucius’s original teachings. Much like how Theravada Buddhism is viewed as the more traditional interpretation of the Buddha’s words, Mengzi’s teachings closely align with Confucius’s emphasis on virtue and moral cultivation.
Mengzi believed in the inherent goodness of human nature. He argued that all individuals possess an innate moral potential and that with the right environment, education, and leadership, people could cultivate their innate sense of compassion and righteousness. He emphasized the role of benevolent leadership in guiding society, advocating that rulers should lead by example and act out of virtue rather than coercion. In his view, the key to a harmonious society was nurturing this moral goodness within every person.
Xunzi: A Different Path
In contrast, Xunzi, another key Confucian thinker, had a starkly different view of human nature. He taught that people are naturally selfish and driven by desires, and that moral cultivation was necessary to overcome these selfish tendencies. In Xunzi’s philosophy, achieving goodness required strict discipline, education, and adherence to ritual and social order.
While Xunzi still embraced many of Confucius’s ideas about the importance of education and ritual, his more pessimistic view of human nature set his teachings apart from Mengzi’s. He believed that without proper guidance and societal structures in place, humans would naturally act in ways that disrupt social harmony. As such, his ideas leaned toward a more structured and disciplined view of society, where strong governance and clear social hierarchies were essential.
The Long-Term Influence of the Two Schools
Over time, Confucian scholars gravitated more toward Mengzi’s interpretation of Confucius. Mengzi’s emphasis on compassion, moral potential, and virtuous leadership became the foundation of the Confucian tradition that would dominate Chinese thought for centuries. His ideas resonated with the broader cultural values of family, respect, and harmony, and they blended well with other philosophies that were emerging in China. Xunzi, however, didn’t fade into obscurity. His ideas, especially the belief that humans are fundamentally selfish, found a home in Legalism, which emphasized strict laws, harsh punishments, and a strong centralized authority.
Unlike Buddhism, which remains a tradition with several distinct branches today, Confucianism evolved into a more unified tradition. By 150 BCE, elements from both Mengzi and Xunzi’s teachings were blended into a cohesive whole, though the more optimistic views of Mengzi prevailed.
A Philosophical Reflection
What this history reveals is that after a great teacher’s death, the interpretation of their teachings often takes on a life of its own. Confucius’s philosophy, like that of many masters across different cultures, wasn’t frozen in time after his passing. Instead, it evolved as later thinkers like Mengzi and Xunzi interpreted his wisdom through their own lenses. Each generation refines and sometimes reinterprets the teachings they inherit, leading to new schools of thought. In fact, in honor of Spinozan thought, let’s be clear and say each person who reads Confucius interprets it through their personal lens.
While Confucianism eventually became a unified tradition, scholars and thinkers continue to debate the interpretation of his teachings, just as they do with many great philosophers. Ideas, after all, are living things, subject to the interpretations and evolutions of the cultures they influence. Whether through the ripples of a lost tradition, or not, as ideas are carried forward, they are shaped, debated, and forged into a “current idea.” The fact that Confucius’s ideas survived—through oral tradition, through different schools, and eventually through written texts—is a testament to the enduring power of his philosophy, and his juxtaposition close to “written” history.
Part 4: The Analects — Timeless Wisdom
The teachings of Confucius eventually became The Analects—a collection of around 500 sayings attributed to him. By approximately 150 BCE, they were compiled into the 20 short books that make up the version of The Analects we recognize today. The Analects represents a living guide to Confucius’s approach to life, emphasizing the virtues of discipline, duty, and honor—not just to oneself, but to one’s family, community, and society at large.
Confucianism as Applied Philosophy
In my book 30 Philosophers, I introduce Confucianism as an
applied philosophy—a framework of thought that deals with the question of how to live life.
Applied philosophy for many is the key field in philosophy. Applied philosophies, such as Confucianism, aren’t about abstract concepts removed from the everyday—they’re about making real, meaningful changes in how we live, interact, and think.
Confucianism stands out as a powerful example of an applied philosophy. It teaches us that the path to personal fulfillment and social harmony lies in cultivating virtue. Confucius focused on the values of self-discipline, filial piety, and social responsibility—not just for the sake of personal success, but to improve the well-being of society as a whole. This is where the concept of “normalcy” enters into my own exploration of Confucian thought.
When you apply philosophy to your life, you’re creating a new normal—a new baseline for how you approach your day-to-day experiences. That’s the approach I took in chapter 5 of “30 Philosophers.” Confucianism, in particular, emphasizes reshaping your character through consistent practice of virtues like benevolence, respect, and humility. To me, this is the real value of Confucianism: it shows us how to create a personal and social normal that is grounded in an improved authentic self.
A Look at the First Three Sayings from The Analects
To get a clearer picture of Confucius’s philosophy, let’s examine the first three sayings from The Analects. These brief passages offer profound insights into the core values he promoted.
Book 1, Chapter 1:
The Master said,
“In learning and straightway practicing, is there not pleasure also? Is it not a joy to have friends come from afar? Is it not gentlemanly not to take offense when others fail to appreciate your abilities?”
In this first passage, Confucius lays out three foundational principles:
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The joy of learning and applying wisdom:
Confucius teaches that knowledge is not merely for personal gain but for personal growth. There is immense satisfaction in not only acquiring wisdom but putting it into practice. Learning, when done with sincerity, brings true joy. -
The value of friendships:
Just like Epicurus, Confucius promoted friendship. There is a special happiness in the connection with others who share similar values and ideas. Confucius often emphasized the importance of relationships, particularly friendships built on mutual respect and learning. -
The practice of humility:
Here, Confucius advises against seeking external validation. A true gentleman does not take offense when others fail to recognize his worth. Virtue, in Confucius’s view, is about inner peace and confidence in one’s own character, regardless of outside recognition.
Book 1, Chapter 2:
The Master said,
“It is rare to find a man who is filial and respectful to his elders but likes to defy his superiors; and there has never been one who likes to defy his superiors and is fond of causing disorder.”
In this saying, Confucius shifts the focus to morality and social harmony:
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Filial piety as the foundation of respect:
Confucius believed that respect for authority begins in the home, with respect for one’s elders. If a person cultivates good moral character within the family, that sense of duty and respect will extend outward into society. The family, in Confucius’s view, is the first school of morality. -
Order and stability in society:
Confucius is also making a broader point about societal order. Those who are respectful within the family are more likely to contribute to the stability of society as a whole. Conversely, defiance and disorder often begin with a lack of respect at home.
Book 1, Chapter 3:
The Master said,
“A clever tongue and a fine appearance are rarely signs of Goodness.”
This passage is a reminder of the Confucian focus on inner virtue over outward appearances:
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Virtue over appearances:
Confucius is quick to remind us that goodness and virtue are not measured by how someone looks or speaks. True character is revealed through actions, not clever words or attractive appearances. -
A life of integrity:
Goodness, for Confucius, comes from within. It is cultivated through moral discipline, righteous action, and a genuine concern for others. Appearances and eloquent words might impress people, but they do not equate to true virtue.
Although Confucius lived over 2,500 years ago, his teachings in The Analects continue to resonate with readers today. They provide a guide for living life.
Can you trust that the Analects is the teachings of Confucius?
Yes. Absolutely. Scholars widely agree that the Analects authentically capture the essence of Confucius‘ teachings, especially in passages that start with “The Master said.” While it’s acknowledged that some content may have been shaped or expanded by later followers, these additions are believed to have stayed true to Confucius’ core philosophy. By 150 BCE, the text was essentially locked in, solidifying it as a foundational source for understanding Confucian thought.
All the characters mentioned in the Analects were either real people or amalgamations of contemporaries of Confucius. Recent studies, such as those presented in Confucius and the Analects Revisited, confirm that the text serves as a communal memory—preserving not only Confucius’ own words but also the traditions passed down by his disciples.
Oral Traditions Compared: Confucius versus Gautama Buddha
Scholars have high confidence that both the Buddha and Confucius’ traditions accurately reflect the teachings of both men. While the Buddha focused on exact word memorization, Confucius focused on the ideas behind the words. Both techniques result in an accurate transmission of ideas.
If you’re already familiar with my work, you likely know that words represent reality, but are not reality itself. Quotes are born from the mind of an individual shaped by their worldview, culture, and time period. The winds of change are always blowing, and Confucius lived during a particularly turbulent era known as the Spring and Autumn period. It was a time of shifting political powers and social upheaval. Keep this in mind for an added layer of understanding.
Gautama Buddha’s oral tradition is often regarded as structured and precise. During his lifetime, the Buddha’s disciples were required to memorize his words verbatim, using chanting and mnemonic techniques to ensure accuracy. This approach made the transmission of his exact words a rigorous process. Within a year of his death, the First Buddhist Council codified his teachings, further cementing the consistency of the oral tradition. It remained in the oral tradition until the 1st century BCE. While there is no way to know for sure how many changes were made during the nearly 20 generations, without evidence, we have to accept the words as is. This is the nature of historical stories.
In contrast, the oral tradition of Confucius appears to have been less organized and more fluid. While Confucius’s disciples undoubtedly passed down his wisdom orally, it seems that he placed greater emphasis on understanding the underlying ideas rather than memorizing exact phrases. This raises an interesting question: when communicating, is it better to focus on conveying the deeper, pre-linguistic thought behind an idea, or on using precise words that represent it? Which group of disciples—those of Confucius or Gautama Buddha—understood their master’s ideas better?
Much like Socrates, Confucius often taught through dialogue, responding to questions from his students and elaborating on topics as they arose. This conversational style is evident in The Analects. The books and chapters of The Analects are out of order, and there is no clear chronological progression, which suggests that his teachings were collected based on memory and understanding.
It’s also important to consider that Confucius was very deliberate about the language he used, often reflecting on the meaning and appropriateness of specific terms. This means that, although his disciples might not have been required to memorize every word, they still transmitted his teachings with an eye toward preserving the integrity of his ideas. The fact that The Analects contains so many direct references to particular students and specific exchanges indicates that some method of consistent transmission was in place.
Oral Traditions Compared: Confucius versus Laozi
Since we’ve come this far, let’s include Daoist thought in the discussion. In a way, you can say that the original Buddhist language is more precise than the original Confucius language which are in turn more precise than the original Daoist language. But all convey these ancient ideas accurately.
Unlike the Confucian dialogue tradition aimed at capturing prelinguistic ideas, Laozi’s teachings were passed down with a different emphasis. The tradition around Daoism suggests that Laozi’s Dao De Jing was written down relatively early—possibly by Laozi himself or his immediate followers. As such, Daoist thought moved from oral to written form more quickly than Confucianism did. I say “possibly” because the earliest complete set of 81 chapters we have date back to 168 BCE. While many believe the full 81 chapters go all the way back to Laozi, the only earlier set we have is the Guodian texts, which are incomplete, containing only 31 chapters and dating to around 300 BCE.
While Confucius’s disciples focused on capturing his philosophy in context, the Daoist tradition has always embraced the ambiguity and fluidity of language. Daoism’s foundational text, the Dao De Jing, purposefully avoids rigid definitions, reflecting the Daoist belief in the ineffability of the Dao (the Way). This makes it fundamentally different from the Confucian approach, where language was a tool to clearly articulate ethical and social principles. Comparing these two traditions highlights the unique role that language plays in conveying philosophical thought—Confucianism sought clarity and ethical guidance, whereas Daoism embraced the mystical and the indescribable.
Ultimately, each of these traditions—Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist—reflects a distinct perspective on how teachings should be preserved and shared. The structured oral traditions of Buddhism aimed for precision, Confucianism sought to balance understanding with flexibility, and Daoism thrived on the fluidity of language itself. Together, they offer a comprehensive view of how oral traditions can shape—and be shaped by—the philosophical values they seek to transmit.
Oral Traditions Compared: Confucius versus Hinduism
As a final comparison before we conclude, let’s briefly mention the Vedic Tradition, the ancient roots of Hinduism. The Vedas, which are the foundational texts of Hinduism, were passed down orally for centuries before being written down. Like the Buddhist tradition, Vedic teachings relied heavily on precise memorization, with an emphasis on maintaining the exact pronunciation and order of the verses, reflecting their sacred nature. This structured oral tradition, developed as early as 1100 BCE, more than 25 generations before written down. And, the earliest stories have even more ambiguous roots another 10 generations earlier! While Confucius’s disciples focused on conveying the master’s ideas, the Vedic tradition prioritized the exact preservation of words and sounds, ensuring the purity of their sacred texts. While we’ll never no for sure how accurate these traditions are to their original roots, what is clear it that oral traditions varied on focus but our ideas about them now do represent the original prelinguistic thoughts, the original teachings.
Conclusion: Confucius’s Timeless Path to Wisdom
The teachings of Confucius, compiled in The Analects, offer us a timeless path toward wisdom, self-improvement, and humble virtue. His emphasis on personal discipline, respect for others, and moral leadership is as relevant now as it was 2,500 years ago.
As we navigate the complexities of modern life, Confucius’s ideas provide a steady guide for how to live with integrity and purpose. By applying his teachings, we can create our own new normal—one that prioritizes ethical behavior, lifelong learning, and the cultivation of virtue in ourselves and our communities.
— map / TST —
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For a deeper exploration of how Confucianism fits into the broader landscape of human thought, check out my new book, “30 Philosophers”, where I tell the story of the greatest ideas that have shaped humanity over the last 5,000 years. Confucius’s teachings are just one of many that continue to offer wisdom for those willing to listen.
30 Philosophers: A New Look at Timeless Ideas
