Natural philosophy includes dividing ideas into empirical, rational, and irrational as well as understanding their philosophical context. Philosophical context includes understanding the timing of discoveries and rediscoveries as well as the philosophers behind them and their publications.
30 Phil, Chapter 16, Al-Farabi, Touchstone 40: Intellect. Intellect refers to the ability to reason and understand objectively, particularly with regard to abstract or academic matters. Al-Farabi delineated human understanding into three phases: the potential, actual, and acquired. His insights laid the groundwork for today’s understanding, a roadmap for how our thinking grows over time. […]
30 Phil, Chapter 15, Saint Augustine, Touchstone 39: Eternity. Eternity is the idea of an endless timeline. Visualize a river that flows in both directions as far as the eyes can see. But for Augustine, eternity is “all time at once,” and his idea positions it as a precursor to the modern block universe theory.
30 Phil, Chapter 15, Saint Augustine, Touchstone 38: Chronoception. According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, time is intertwined with space in a four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. However, our experiencing of it is called chronoception. Augustine was one of the first to describe time as a subjective experience. Today we know it is influenced by
Your mind bends reality before you notice. Take control by owning your biases. Slow down. Check your confidence against evidence.
Cause and effect shape outcomes regardless of belief. Actions, not intent, nor faith, determine what follows.
30 Phil, Chapter 13, Marcus Aurelius, Touchstone 35: Cognitive Distancing. Cognitive Distancing is a psychological technique where one separates themselves from their thoughts and emotions to gain perspective and objectivity. By viewing thoughts as transient and not necessarily true, individuals can reduce their emotional impact and make more rational decisions. This technique aligns with the Stoic
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30 Phil, Chapter 13, Marcus Aurelius, Touchstone 34: Negative Visualization. It is not external events, but our thoughts about them, that cause distress. Many of us don’t truly appreciate our family, friends, and possessions so visualizing their absence increases appreciation for them. Negative visualization finds a modern counterpart in “defensive pessimism,” a cognitive strategy in
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30 Phil, Chapter 13, Marcus Aurelius, Touchstone 33: Cognitive Reframing. Cognitive Reframing: an Ancient Stoic “CBT” Technique: Cognitive reframing is a modern therapeutic technique employed in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of psychotherapy, and it has its philosophical roots in ancient Stoic thought, and Zeno himself is behind it. Emotions are not arbitrary or
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Allegorical interpretation is reading a story for meaning beyond its literal surface.
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30 Phil, Chapter 11, Epicurus, Touchstone 31: Dichotomy of Pleasure. Epicurus defined two types of pleasure: short-term and long-term. Too frequently people put short term pleasures over long-term ones causing deeper harm than warranted. A short-term pleasure is kinetic as in the active enjoyment of fulfilling a desire, such as eating a delicious meal or
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Agnosticism is the honest pause between belief and denial. Used well, it helps you live with mystery, spend your attention wisely, and choose which unknowns are worth exploring.
30 Phil, Chapter 10, Pyrrho of Elis, Touchstone 28: Skepticism. Skepticism emphasizes the continuous challenging of beliefs. Pyrrhonian Skepticism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis, takes this a step further by encouraging you to suspend judgment about reality and truth. This approach urges you to question your beliefs and avoid dogmatism. With skepticism, you question both
Ethics begins with the good life, but the good life is bigger than personal happiness. Flourishing means growing well within reality while helping others, society, and nature flourish too.
30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 26: Logical Fallacies. A logical fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that invalidates an argument. In simple terms, it’s when a conclusion doesn’t logically follow from its premises. They sidestep issues with a lack of valid argumentation. While using a fallacy doesn’t mean the conclusion is wrong, it does
Aristotle helped make reasoning visible. He showed that arguments have structure, and that conclusions must be tested against their premises.
30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 24: Empiricism. Empiricism says knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. It emphasizes the role of observation and evidence in forming beliefs and understanding the world.
30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 23: Rationalism. Rationalism emphasizes reason and a priori knowledge—knowledge you are born with—as the primary means of understanding reality. It says truths can be known independently of experience and that reason alone can provide an understanding of the world.
30 Phil, Chapter 9, Aristotle, Touchstone 22: Syllogisms. While deductive reasoning existed informally before Aristotle, he formalized it in his work “Prior Analytics” by introducing the Syllogism. It structures arguments into two key premises leading to a conclusion and remains widely used today. Aristotle knew that syllogisms can both analyze and validate derived truths, by logically
30 Phil, Chapter 8, Plato, Touchstone 21: Ignorance is Bliss. The concept of “Ignorance is bliss” says being uninformed or unaware of certain truths can lead to greater happiness. Take, for example, germophobes—people who are excessively concerned about germs. Constant awareness and meticulous research about germs and contamination could elevate their levels of stress, affecting
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