From gestures to language: Tracing the Evolution of Communication
Language represents the things we see, our ideas about them, and the things we imagine. Each vocabulary word stands for an abstract idea, a signal from one person to another. When we say “tree” or “run,” those words are abstractions for things. “Tree” is a label for something we can all see. “Run” is a label for the action of someone running, but it’s also a verb telling us to start running. We also have rational ideas which are ideas only in our mind about life. Words like love, honor, and fairness. Finally, we have wholly made-up ideas where we blend together existing ideas to forge an imaginary one—speculative ideas about the world. So, how did language evolve? How did we emerge from animalistic grunts to the eloquence of Shakespeare?
What do we know for sure? Today, we know about the role of the FOXP2 gene in speech and language development, combined with the evolutionary advancements in the human brain, it underscores the biological foundations of our linguistic capabilities. We know that chimpanzees have this gene but there are two amino acid differences. We also know that Neanderthals and Denisovans possessed the same FOXP2 gene as modern humans, including the two key amino acid changes. This suggests that these hominins had the ability to speak. Since Homo heidelbergensis or a species like it is the common ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans, using the Occam Approach to evolutionary analysis, it is likely that they also possessed the same version of the FOXP2 gene. This implies they spoke too, likely pushing spoken language back at least 700,000 years.
The evolution of the two critical amino acid changes are estimated to have occurred sometime after the chimpanzee-human split about 7 million years ago, and before the emergence of Homo heidelbergensis 700 thousand years ago. We also know that Homo heidelbergensis at that time had a modern shape to its hyoid bone. Earlier hominins might have as well, but because of their fragile nature, we have yet to find an intact hyoid bone from earlier hominins.
We also know communication takes many forms, and it is within this context of variety that we use the word vocabulary in this article. In this article, gestures, grunts, and growls in various contexts represent distinct “vocabulary” words. These words come about because of raw cognitive ability and is learned through impressions as one lives. While it’s pretty clear Plato was wrong about all knowledge being innate knowledge, it also appears that Kant is correct that some basic elements of the mind are innate and represented by raw cognitive ability. When we see 3 rocks next to 3 shells in the sand, our minds naturally see equality. We may not fully understand the math of 3=3 naturally, but we can equate things and spend a lifetime exploring the implications of 3 things equalling 3 other things. A trait that likely evolved out of survival needs. The ability to size up two predators running toward us is likely a fundamental evolutionary development.
While our written and oral storytelling traditions are the pinnacle of communication, we also know that simple gestures like pointing is also an effective way to communicate. With the right non-language grunt, scream, or intonation, we know we can point at something and communicate fear of an oncoming threat, the sorrow of someone leaving, or the joy of their return. In this article, those abstractly represent vocabulary.
We also know that communication is generally context-sensitive, and we know animals do it effectively1. For example, based on research, we know wolves2 have a vocabulary ranging from a dozen to a few dozen distinct signals. These signals serve various purposes and are vital for coordinating group behavior and maintaining social cohesion. Wolves use a combination of vocalizations, body language, and facial expressions to convey messages. Howls, growls, barks, and whines each have different meanings, from signaling location to expressing dominance or submission. Tail positions, ear movements, and postures further enrich their communication, allowing wolves to navigate their social structure and environment effectively3.
Relying once again on the Occam Approach to evolutionary analysis, we can deduce that basic communication among our ancestors started over 90 million years ago. Wolves and humans share a common ancestor about 90 million years ago4. And, all mammals branching off that common ancestor communicate using a vocabulary from about a dozen to at least a few dozen words and gestures in various contexts. This includes dogs, cats, and sea lions, as well as even smarter species like raccoons, dolphins, and monkeys with vocabularies among those that live together ranging into the thousands. When we attribute a vocabulary of into the thousands for higher animals, we’re generally referring to those creatures that live their lives together.
A growl is likely a growl no matter where a wolf was raised. Playful gestures versus aggressive gestures can be identified among disparate species. Nearly all animals understand that when a large growling animal is rushing toward you, you’d better get ready to “fight or flight.” This suggests that vocabulary, even in animals, is learned by impressions, allowing two wolves that do not know each other to communicate with the same basic core vocabulary.
Communication through Scent: The Role of Apocrine Glands
Glands responsible for both temperature regulation and basic species communication emerged around 160 million years ago with early mammals. These apocrine glands were used for fundamental communication, enabling species to identify one another, signal reproductive status, and mark territory. This form of scent-based communication was an essential precursor to more complex social interactions, playing a foundational role in the evolution of early human and primate societies.
We know much, and without assuming too much, we can now tell the story of how language evolved. This is that story as we know it.
By about 125 million years ago, mammals likely increased their vocabulary above a dozen, and perhaps for some species living their lives together, into the hundreds. This vocabulary, or signaling, was a series of movements and screeches which eventually evolved into gestures and grunts.
For example, I can imagine a small, nocturnal mammal like the early eutherian ancestor, Eomaia, scurrying through the underbrush. Living in close-knit family groups for protection and cooperation, these creatures would have developed a range of sounds and movements to communicate. A sharp screech might signal the approach of a predator, while a series of rhythmic chirps could coordinate group foraging. As Eomaia evolved, these basic signals would have gradually become more complex, laying the groundwork for the sophisticated communication systems seen in mammals today.
Today, mammals from this ancient lineage communicate with a range of signals, what we’re calling abstract vocabulary. We see this in their descendants ranging from the opossum, with communication signals of only about a dozen, to wolves, ranging into the hundreds.
Today, wolves use this rich tapestry of communication in the wild: howls to signal location, growls to assert dominance, and a myriad of body postures to convey submission, aggression, or affection. This early foundation of dozens of signals provided the building blocks for the more complex communication systems.
It is not too much of a stretch to deduce that as the branches of the mammalian family tree evolved, so did our fundamental cognitive abilities. Yes, we learn by impressions as we live, but how much and how fast we can learn is limited by our physical brains. And yes, although a big brain uses up more energy, a bigger brain is also a powerful survival mechanism.
Furthermore, focusing on human evolution now, it is reasonable to postulate that our ancestors were much like the great apes are today. With smaller brains, they grunted and gestured at each other with a vocabulary ranging into the thousands. Over a very long time, spanning millions of years, their cognitive abilities improved which gave them the ability to add more vocabulary in a lifetime. Each individual added one new vocabulary word at a time just by living and surviving. The ability to communicate better with fellow humans was crucial, so those born with better language traits survived longer and reproduced more successfully.
Since before the orangutan branched about 12 million years ago, all the great ape species had a vocabulary—signals, gestures, grunts, and screams—in various contexts, potentially ranging into the thousands for those living their lives together. These early apes communicated with not only a wide variety but also different levels or gradations of these signals. For instance, one type of scream might indicate danger from above, while another might signal danger on the ground. Depending on the situation, the scream could represent danger at a distance, an immediate personal threat, approaching danger, or imminent danger. Similarly, the same sound could have variations to signal that an attack is in progress or that one just occurred. These are the vocalizations that eventually formed the first words as we understand the term “words” today.
Proto-Language Emerges: 5 to 3.3 Million Years Ago
During the time before the paleolithic era, before 3.3 million years ago, a proto-language in an early form helped with communication. It likely was comprised of simple grunts and gestures a bit more advanced than our great ape cousins; they had more nuanced vocalizations. They existed before the development of fully-fledged language and formed the earliest traditions. Each one developed within a close-knit group and consisted of a combination of simple vocalizations and gestures that conveyed meaning.
Early attempts at communication gradually turned into the first proto-languages. Each group of hominins developed their own proto-language based on their cognitive abilities and environmental influences. Once born, members of the group started learning their way—their tradition. Whenever this happened, it was the first of the traditions that will commonly be known in all future languages, in one form or another, as “the way.” If philosophy has a birth, it was among these proto-languages that it was born. It was some place in Africa around this time that the first of us looked up at night and gazed back at the universe.
Over time, these proto-languages became more sophisticated, with groups developing unique sets of sounds and gestures to represent different objects, actions, and concepts. This evolution was not due to innate knowledge but rather the brain’s ability to learn and adapt. Some groups, through a bit of luck and advantageous cognitive traits, developed more complex proto-languages that laid the foundation for the rich, diverse languages we use today.
Imagine a time, millions of years ago, when our early ancestors roamed the African forests and savannas. They were not yet equipped with the intricate languages we use today, but they were far from silent. Through grunts, gestures, and primal vocalizations, they began to carve out a rudimentary form of communication. These early sounds and signs, though simplistic, marked the dawn of a complex journey towards sophisticated language. Imagine standing on the savannas during this time, where the sun casts long shadows over the grasslands and the air is filled with the distant sounds of wildlife. Here, our early ancestors, the australopithecines or a species like them, are taking their first steps toward the sophisticated communication that will define humanity. These hominins, smaller and less brainy than modern humans, are beginning to experiment with a rudimentary form of language to facilitate “their way” of living life. Part of “the way” for them included using the things around them, such as sticks and stones as tools, as well as hunting and gathering together. However, adding the control of fire and shaped stones and sticks to “the way” of our ancestors had to wait for a bigger, more capable brain. That would come after millions of years of evolution, first with Homo habilis, who chipped rocks into better tools, and then Homo erectus, who added control of fire to “the way.”
In this primordial world of the australopithecines, communication is a matter of survival. Our ancestors are developing a system of grunts and gestures that go beyond the basic cries of other animals. Picture a small band of australopithecines foraging for food. One spots a potential meal and emits a specific grunt, a sound that translates roughly to “food.” Another spots danger—a lurking predator—and raises an alarm with a different vocalization. These early forms of communication, though primitive, are vital for the group’s cohesion and survival.
The gestural communication of these early hominins is also remarkably sophisticated. Much like modern apes, who use many visual techniques to communicate, australopithecines likely relied heavily on body language. A raised arm might signal “come here,” while a pointed finger could indicate “over there.” These gestures are not random; they are deliberate and understood by the group, forming a primitive “vocabulary” of perhaps up to 200 sounds and signals with some close knit groups stretching their vocabulary even higher. This nascent language allows them to coordinate hunting and gathering activities, care for their offspring, and interact socially in ways that are more complex than their primate relatives.
Studies on primate behavior today give us a window into this ancient communication system. Chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, use a range of visual and auditory signals for specific purposes—grooming, playing, warning of danger. These behaviors suggest that our australopithecine ancestors likely possessed even more advanced abilities. The evolution of these early communication methods marks the beginning of a journey that leads to language and “the ways” of various philosophies from Daoism to Nihilism.
Simple Language Emerges: 3.3 to 1.5 Million Years Ago
After about 1.8 million years, we find ourselves at the start of the paleolithic era 3.3 million years ago. This period marks a significant leap in the evolution of our brains and in communication. This world is inhabited by early hominins, such as Australopithecus and later by Homo habilis and even later by Homo erectus. It is reasonable to conclude, that during the Stone Age, between 3.3 and 1.5 million years ago, is when grunts started turning into proto-words especially for early Homo erectus.
Paleoneurology, the study of fossilized skulls, reveals an increase in brain size and complexity over millions of years, particularly in areas associated with language and social interaction. This suggests that the evolution of language was closely tied to the development of the human brain, reflecting the intricate interplay between biological and cultural evolution.
As the millennia rolled on, these primitive forms of communication evolved, mirroring the gradual advancements in our ancestors’ cognitive and social structures. Our ancestors are no longer relying solely on simple grunts and gestures; they are developing a more complex system of language, laying the groundwork for the intricate verbal communication we use today.
Returning to a time about two million years ago, imagine a small group of Homo habilis working together to hunt or gather food. The coordination required for these activities demands more than basic signals. They need to share detailed information—where the best foraging spots are, how to make and use tools, and how to avoid predators. This necessity drives the development of hundreds of different visual and auditory techniques to form a simple language that is both expressive and functional.
This burgeoning language allows early humans to pass down vital survival information through generations. Picture an elder teaching a younger member of the group how to fashion a stone tool. The elder uses a combination of gestures and sounds to demonstrate the technique, ensuring that this crucial skill is not lost. These early lessons are the precursors to the rich oral traditions that will later define human culture. Simple stories, like warnings about dangerous areas or the location of abundant food sources, begin to take shape, creating a shared knowledge base that enhances group survival.
This increased cognitive ability is reflected in the oral tradition of telling common stories within a group and the profound stories about “the way” to live, told and promoted by their best minds. The same storytelling tradition that will eventually keep the teachings of philosophers like Zoroaster, Gautama Buddha, and Socrates alive until their teachings could be written down. How many profound stories of our ancestors never made it to the time of writing, leaving us to wonder about the wisdom of those who came before us? Imagine the stories about nature, the cautionary tales, the moral lessons that became, were retold for countless generations, only to be lost to the sands of time.
The development of simple language is intertwined with significant advancements in tool use and brain size. Archaeological evidence shows that Homo habilis and Homo erectus crafted increasingly sophisticated tools, suggesting advanced cognitive abilities. These tools are not just for immediate survival—they are part of a broader cultural toolkit, passed down and refined through generations. For them, it was part of “the way,” their tradition.
Social learning becomes a cornerstone of early human societies. The ability to transmit knowledge and skills through both demonstration and vocalization creates a more cohesive and capable group. The complexity of these activities indicates that early humans were capable of conveying detailed and nuanced information, a significant advancement from the simpler communication systems of their ancestors.
Proto-True-Language Emerges: 1.5 Million to 800,000 Years Ago
As we journey further along the timeline of human evolution, we find ourselves between 1.5 million and 800,000 years ago. The Fire Age is inhabited by Homo erectus and Homo antecessor with Homo habilis going extinct about 1.4 million years ago. After this time and out of these species, or species like them, Homo heidelbergensis, Neanderthals and eventually sapiens will evolve. Each species marking another leap in the complexity of human communication. The proto-language of these ancestors is now more sophisticated, bridging the gap between the simpler communication of earlier hominins and the intricate languages of modern humans.
Discoveries like the 290 thousand year old ancient art in India are significant to understanding the evolution of our minds. Art represents symbolic thought which represents a significant step in cognitive ability. Art found in central India, cupules (circular hollows on rock surfaces) are among the earliest known forms of rock art. They were likely created by a species like Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis and not Homo sapiens. Sapiens are not known to be in India until around 40,000 years ago. Homo erectus is known in India as early as 1.7 million years ago and Homo heidelbergensis around 300,000 years ago. If Homo heidelbergensis is confirmed, that moves the evolution of symbolic thought back to before 700,000 years ago. If Homo erectus is confirmed, that moves it back closer to 2 million years ago.
Fast forward to a million years ago, and imagine a world where our ancestors, equipped with larger brains and more intricate social structures, gather around a fire at dusk. Here, in the flickering light, they share simple stories—not merely about survival, but about their experiences, their environment, and their social norms. This proto-language, while still far from the complexities of contemporary speech, includes thousands of combinations of sounds and gestures. These combinations allow for a depth of expression previously unattainable, enabling more detailed storytelling and enhancing social bonds within the group. Did our ancestors share stories like this a million years ago? Two million? A half million? That’s the question scholars are grappling with right now. The discovery of earlier and earlier art indicates it’s possible. My holistic view suggests that stories, simple as they may have been, were likely told about a million years ago. Speculative? Yes. But what we know for sure is that the story of the last few centuries, depicting early humans as grunting brutes incapable of speech just 10 thousand years ago, was wrong. Very wrong. Stay tuned.
The emergence of proto-language is closely tied to the significant increase in brain size observed in Homo heidelbergensis and early Neanderthals. With larger brains came greater cognitive abilities, allowing these hominins to process and produce more complex forms of communication. Studies on the FOXP2 gene, often called the “language gene,” suggest that these ancestors possessed the genetic makeup necessary for advanced speech and language. This gene, crucial for language development in modern humans, indicates that our predecessors had already laid the groundwork for sophisticated communication.
Cultural transmission during this period takes on new dimensions. The ability to pass on knowledge through storytelling becomes a cornerstone of these early societies. Picture a skilled hunter sharing his strategies for tracking game, using a mix of vocal sounds and gestures to convey his methods. Or imagine a group leader warning others about the dangers lurking in certain areas, using detailed descriptions that go beyond simple alerts. These stories, rich with information and imbued with cultural significance, help the group to survive and thrive in their environment.
Social learning flourishes in this proto-language context. Knowledge is not just a set of instructions but a tapestry of narratives that teach and entertain, forging stronger community ties. The tales of successful hunts, of encounters with predators, and of the changing seasons become part of a shared heritage, passed down through generations. This cultural continuity is vital, ensuring that each new generation benefits from the accumulated wisdom of their predecessors.
The proto-language of Homo heidelbergensis and early neanderthals represents a pivotal stage in the evolution of human communication. It is a testament to the adaptive power of language, enabling our ancestors to navigate their world with greater precision and cohesion. As we look back on this era, we see the foundations of storytelling, cultural transmission, and social bonding that will ultimately lead to complex true languages.
True-Language Emerges: 800 to 200 Thousand Years Ago
As we delve into the period between 800 and 200 thousand years ago, we encounter the dawn of human-like culture. As part of the Cultural Age, true language likely emerged, a transformative phase in the history of human communication.
Growing evidence suggests that the idea of ancient language starts to settle on more solid scientific grounds during this time. A holistic look at the evidence clearly paints a picture of the ancestors of sapiens and neanderthals continuing their evolutionary journey—a journey that included the development of languages within various groups. This era heralded the birth of structured languages, complete with consistent grammar and syntax, which allowed for the sharing of complex stories and ideas, thereby fostering social cohesion and cultural development.
Picture a group of early sapiens huddled together in a cave, the flickering firelight illuminating their faces as they engage in animated conversation. These early humans are no longer limited to simple gestures and basic vocalizations. Instead, they are speaking in a structured language, capable of conveying intricate thoughts and emotions. The development of such languages marks a significant milestone in human evolution, providing the foundation for more advanced social structures and cultural practices.
The emergence of true language is supported by the evolutionary advancements in the human brain and vocal apparatus. Larger, more complex brains enabled our ancestors to process and produce sophisticated speech, while anatomical changes in the vocal tract, including the evolution of the modern hyoid bone, allowed for a wider range of sounds. These developments likely occurred before 700,000 years ago in species like Homo heidelbergensis, setting the stage for the complex languages used by Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. These developments facilitated the creation of languages with consistent grammar and syntax, essential for effective communication. The archaeological record supports this transition, with evidence of increasingly complex tools, art, and early symbolic communication indicating the presence of sophisticated language.
The progression of human communication continued at an accelerating pace. Our ancestors, including Homo heidelbergensis and early Neanderthals, likely used a proto-language with a growing vocabulary and structure. This allowed them to share more complex ideas and coordinate their activities with greater precision. The ability to pass down knowledge through storytelling became an essential aspect of their culture, providing the foundation for social cohesion and collective learning.
During this period, the teaching of language became a critical aspect of human society. Language was not innate; it had to be learned and passed down from one generation to the next. This process ensured that each new generation could benefit from the accumulated knowledge and wisdom of their ancestors. Variations in language from one group to another was as pronounced as it is today. This linguistic diversity laid the groundwork for the multitude of languages that would eventually spread across the globe.
Imagine a Neanderthal family from about 400 thousand years ago teaching their children the words and phrases needed for daily survival. These early language lessons were vital, as they equipped the young with the tools to navigate their world and contribute to their community. The ability to communicate complex ideas and emotions strengthened social bonds and enhanced cooperation, key factors in the survival and success of these early humans.
The rise of true language also saw the flowering of cultural expression. With the ability to articulate thoughts and share stories, humans could now preserve and transmit their cultural heritage. The creation of art, the development of rituals, and the telling of myths and legends became integral parts of human society. These cultural practices not only enriched the lives of individuals but also reinforced the social fabric, fostering a sense of identity and belonging within the group.
Complex Language is Established: 200,000 Years Ago to Present
As we arrive at the final stretch of our journey through the evolution of human language, we encounter the period from 200,000 years ago to the present. This era, marked by the rise of anatomically modern humans, witnessed the culmination of millions of years of linguistic development. Language became increasingly complex, setting the stage for one of humanity’s most profound achievements: the invention of writing.
Imagine a world where sapiens, equipped with sophisticated vocal and cognitive abilities, engage in rich conversations, sharing not just immediate concerns but also abstract ideas and emotions. By 200,000 years ago, humans had developed complex languages with intricate grammar and syntax, capable of conveying the full spectrum of human experience. This linguistic complexity allowed for the transmission of detailed knowledge, the telling of elaborate stories, and the establishment of intricate social structures.
By the time sapiens emerged around 200,000 years ago, the capacity for language had reached new heights. With more advanced brains and vocal anatomy, early humans developed languages rich in vocabulary and grammar, capable of conveying intricate ideas and emotions. This linguistic prowess set the stage for the development of symbolic thought and, eventually, the invention of writing. The first cave paintings and carvings, dating back tens of thousands of years, are a testament to our ancestors’ growing ability to communicate abstract concepts and preserve knowledge.
The evolution of complex language laid the groundwork for another monumental leap: the development of writing systems around 5,000 years ago. Before writing, early humans expressed themselves through symbolic representations, such as cave paintings and carvings. These early artworks, like the Blombos Cave engravings and the Chauvet Cave paintings, serve as evidence of our ancestors’ capacity for abstract thought and communication. They mark the dawn of a new era where humans could preserve and share knowledge across generations and geographies.
The advent of writing marked a significant milestone in human communication. It allowed for the accurate recording of history, the codification of laws, and the flourishing of literature and science. With writing, civilizations could accumulate and transmit vast amounts of knowledge, fostering technological advancements and complex societal structures. This cultural explosion saw the rise of great civilizations, from Mesopotamia and Egypt to the Indus Valley and China, each contributing to the tapestry of human progress.
Today, you live in a time where, for the very first time in the history of humans, readily available knowledge exceeds our cognitive abilities. Prior to the last few centuries, most humans had the cognitive capacity to learn but lacked sufficient material to fill it. With the advent of the printing press and the subsequent information explosion, the available knowledge now far exceeds what any individual can consume in a lifetime. For the first time, and in the coming centuries, we’ll truly test the vast capabilities of the human mind to adapt, filter, and prioritize information.
As we conclude this exploration of human linguistic evolution, we see a remarkable journey from simple grunts and gestures to the complex languages and writing systems of today. The development of language has been a driving force behind our social and cultural achievements, enabling us to share knowledge, express creativity, and build civilizations. Understanding this journey not only illuminates our past but also enriches our appreciation of the sophisticated communication that defines us as a species. The story of language is a testament to the extraordinary adaptability and ingenuity of humanity, a narrative that continues to unfold with each passing generation.
–map / TST
Footnotes:
- Mech, L. D., & Boitani, L. (2003). Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Chicago Press.
- Fox, M. W. (1971). Behavior of Wolves, Dogs, and Related Canids. Harper & Row.
- Schenkel, R. (1967). Submission: Its Features and Function in the Wolf and Dog. American Zoologist, 7(2), 319-329.
- The actual range for the human-wolf last common answer is 95 to 125 mya.
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