The Paleolithic era is the story of humans transforming from animal to human. This era, spanning from the emergence of stone tools 3.3 million years ago to the dawn of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, is traditionally divided into lower, middle, and upper Paleolithic. Those three divisions workwell, but they tend to focus on artifacts found over our evolution and our raw cognitive abilities. A subtle switch raising the focus of evolution can better clarify the true story of ancient humans.
The story of ancient humans is the story of the genus “Homo” starting with Homo habilis about 2.3 million years ago, which is about 1 million years into the paleolithic era. The species making up the genus “Homo” are also called hominins, but I prefer the term ancient humans. Recent advances in archaeology and genetics have revealed that evolution was the driving force for the complexity and nuance of the Paleolithic period from 3.3 million years ago up to our last cognitive revolution sometime before 50,000 years ago. During this time, the raw abilities of the brains of various ancient humans, meaning their nature, was the primary driving factor. What each group did with it constituted their culture. In the nature versus nurture split, their culture is the “nurture” side. This culture prioritized certain evolved traits, which in turn pushed evolution along.
A more holistic approach focuses on our nature up to the last cognitive revolution, then switches to our cultural development, or “nurture,” to better tell the story. Throughout the Paleolithic period over the last 3.3 million years, the interplay between biological evolution and cultural innovation shaped each other, leading to modern civilization. I propose dividing the Paleolithic into six distinct ages: Stone, Fire, Cultural, Symbolic, Cognitive, and Prehistory.
In essence, the traditional lower paleolithic is divided into three ages: Stone, Fire, and Cultural. The traditional middle paleolithic maps pretty well to the Symbolic and Cultural ages. Finally, the traditional upper paleolithic maps pretty well to the Prehistory Age, but the Prehistory Age removes the cultural agrarian element. Also, the end of the Prehistory Age is specifically defined as 4000 BCE, rather than the start of the earliest agrarian cultures. This date is about in the middle or average of our earliest stories, our creation date stories.
Cultural Stories: Prewriting, Not Prehistory
Before we go further, let’s discuss the current use of the term “prehistory” and consider a change. Traditionally, “history” begins when a culture starts documenting its events, and anything before that is considered “prehistory” for that culture. While this makes sense within the context of individual cultures, it can lead to inconsistencies, such as using the label “prehistory” for both the Sumerians before 3000 BCE and the Navajo people before 1880.
To address this, I suggest adopting the term “prewriting” to describe the time before written records for specific cultures. In my writing, “prehistory” is used exclusively to mark a universal period for all of humanity, avoiding confusion yet retaining the intent of the “prewriting” period of various cultures.
The end of the Prehistory Age in this framework is 4000 BCE. For my writing, I was looking for our oldest surviving stories and I chose this date because it is roughly in the middle of several creation story dates. It also aligns well with a common Biblical creation story date. This marks the beginning of writing about our story of humanity: our history.
By the way: In my writing, I specifically divide up history into prehistory, ancient history, medieval, and post-medieval. Within the post-medieval era, I define “Our Time” as 1950 to the present. This framework allows me to focus more on topics and less on the various labels used to describe specific cultures during specific times. This means I can write about the Enlightenment period of Europe and what was happening with Native Americans during that same time without implying one is smarter than the other.
Within these strict periods of time, you can switch to whatever traditional labels you wish to use to describe culture and its progress or lack thereof, including hunter-gatherer versus agrarian, prewriting to writing, the metal ages like bronze, copper, steel, etc. The point is to stress that all these people had the same raw cognitive abilities. Their nature was equal. How they chose to nurture their culture can be viewed in terms of progress, but terms like progress, better, or worse may not always apply. Some people choose to live without progressing, such as the Amish and various hunter-gatherer groups around the world. These other “more primitive cultures” live in the modern era and exemplify this point. They live in what I choose to label as “Our Time.” How a group lived during a given age of humanity, say during ancient history from 4000 BCE to 500 CE, is a story about culture: a story about “their way.”
This revised framework posits that the development of human cognition and culture was a gradual process, shaped by a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors. The Sentinelese people, for example, who left Africa at least 60,000 years ago, have lived in isolation and offer a fascinating example of the cognitive and cultural abilities of early humans. Their story will be explored in the context of this revised framework, but first, here are the six ages of this framework. They tell the story of our journey from animal to human.
1: Stone Age (3.3 million to 1.5 million years ago)
This is the age of the rise of simple symbolic thought and the dexterous human hand (nature) and the beginning of crafting tools (nurture).
Exhibit 1 for the start of the Stone Age includes shaped rocks, choppers, and hand axes as well as fossils showing the evolution of the human thumb. These findings demonstrate how early humans began using tools to interact with their environment in more sophisticated ways, marking the dawn of technological innovation and the cognitive advancements that laid the foundation for future developments.
This is the time when we started using our imaginations to shape the world. We started looking at the things around us and reshaping them, but only rocks survived the test of time. We didn’t just see a rock; we saw raw material and could imagine shaping it differently so we could use it for something later. While culture is a very broad term that can include animal culture, perhaps human-like culture started at this point with our imaginations and dexterous hands. These traits laid the foundation for future cognitive and cultural advancements. The ability to create and use tools, the nurture side of things, was closely linked to cognitive developments, enabling early humans to interact with their environment in more sophisticated ways.
About 1.5 million years ago, some of our ancestors developed better minds. As these people reproduced and spread throughout populations that will eventually lead to us, they acquired new skills. One of the most important was the control of fire and that level of ability ushered in the Fire Age.
2: Fire Age (1.5 million to 800,000 years ago)
This is the age of the rise of human-like thinking (nature) and the mastery of fire (nurture). The Fire Age marks significant cognitive advancements over our animal ancestors and that included improved survival which facilitated further cultural development.
Exhibit 1 for the start of the Fire Age includes fire artifacts such as hearths, burned bones, and charred plant remains. These findings demonstrate how early humans used fire for warmth, protection, and cooking, which in turn influenced social structures and daily life.
As our ancestors lived and explored new environments during this era, something magical started happening to a few populations. Their brains started getting bigger. As these groups roamed, mixed, and bred with others, their superior traits were more frequently passed on and this process started to accelerate around 800,000 years ago, ushering in the Cultural Age.
3: Cultural Age (800,000 to 440,000 years ago)
This age marks the rapid evolution of the brain (nature) and significant cultural advancements (nurture).
Exhibit 1 for this age is the fossilized skulls of our ancestors. They provide compelling evidence that our brains evolved significantly starting about 800,000 years ago.
The Theory of Gene-Culture Coevolution
The Cultural Age reflects ideas from Richard Dawkins and Steven Pinker, aligning with the theory of “gene-culture coevolution” or “cultural feedback loop.” This concept suggests that cultural advancements drive genetic changes, which enable further cultural developments, creating a self-reinforcing cycle. Dawkins introduced the notion of “memes,” cultural units of information that evolve like genes, influencing our genetic evolution. Terrence Deacon, in “The Symbolic Species,” explores how language and symbolic thought coevolved with our brain structures, shaping cognitive capabilities.
The Cultural Age corresponds to the end of Homo antecessor and the emergence of Homo heidelbergensis, marked by significant cultural advancements. These advancements, such as sophisticated tools and social structures, likely drove brain evolution and increased cognitive abilities, reinforcing the cultural feedback loop theory. This iterative process of cultural and genetic evolution underscores the interconnectedness of our species’ development.
This age is characterized by better-constructed homes, improved control and possibly worship of fire, and enhanced communication, including language. These advancements facilitated better cultural transmission, including proto-transcendental intelligence through simple oral traditions. Cognitive progress enabled complex tool-making, social organization, and knowledge sharing across communities.
4: Symbolic Age (440,000 to 125,000 years ago)
The time during which our symbolic thought stabilized in either the lineage that lead to sapiens, neanderthals, or both but most likely with their common ancestor.
Exhibit 1 for this age is Neanderthal art for the argument that symbolic thought formed before 440,000 years ago in the sapiens-neanderthal last common ancestor or earlier.
The Symbolic Age assumes our human ancestors were quite intelligent, within the lower range of modern humans today, but a bit more cognitive ability would evolve during this period. It was this population that led to the final raw talent of the brains of Neanderthals, Denisovans, and Homo sapiens. Modern humans get the bulk of their mental abilities from this population. This age focuses on the gradual development of proto-languages and early forms of complex communication. The cognitive evolution, the evolution of our nature was slow, and the spread of new traits through cultural transmission helped shape early human societies. Each group would nurture their own culture with pride and joy. By this time, it is likely that these ancient humans began developing rudimentary communication methods, leading to more sophisticated social structures and cultural practices. The use of ochre for body painting and possibly symbolic purposes, as seen in sites like Blombos Cave in South Africa (about 75,000 years ago), and the construction of the earliest known burial sites.
When were humans almost as smart as they are now? Current evidence suggests our final significant, but perhaps small cognitive revolutions occurred starting about 125,000 years ago and that ushers in the Cognitive Age.
5: Cognitive Age (125,000 years ago to 50,000 BCE)
The Cognitive Age encompasses our last, but subtle, cognitive revolution. This is the period when the ancestors of modern humans evolved the final increments of their raw mental abilities. Yuval Noah Harari, in his book Sapiens, suggests this is when we gained the ability to collectively believe in (and rally around) the same ideas, stories, rules, and goals. Whether his specific idea pans out or not, this age is when isolated groups evolved their own traits, mixed with other groups, and the most mentally advanced groups survived more frequently, ultimately leading to our modern brains sometime between 50,000 and 125,000 years ago.
Exhibit 1 for the start of the Cognitive Age is DNA evidence, with Adam and Eve as great examples. This refers to Haplogroup A Adam and Haplogroup L Eve. DNA evidence conclusively shows that every human alive today shares these common ancestors. They both lived in Africa, Adam about 275,000 years ago and Eve about 175,000 years ago.
These findings highlight the genetic continuity and shared heritage of all modern humans, supporting the idea of a significant cognitive foundation established by this time. The quality of artifacts, such as engraved ochre pieces, shell beads, and the advanced Levallois technique, further demonstrates the natural and raw cognitive abilities that lead to groups of people nurturing various cultural advancements. The Cognitive Age marks a crucial phase in human evolution.
At the beginning of this age, our human ancestors had about the same raw mental abilities as we do today, and it was this population that provided modern humans with their final cognitive abilities. Significant cultural advancements occurred due to improved mental abilities, representing our evolved nature, and the enhanced cultural transmission represents what we could do with it. The nurturing of various cultures from peace-loving to war-mongers. Each twist of nature and nurture likely led to evolutionary tweaks of our raw natural abilities(see Gene-Culture Coevolution above). During this time, interbreeding with other hominins continued, as evidenced by DNA from Neanderthals and Denisovans. We can identify this interbreeding because of genetic differences among modern human populations that did not share the same interbreeding events. Earlier interbreeding had been thoroughly mixed into the gene pool of our ancestors.
The last significant cognitive revolution occurred deep in our past. There was a pivotal period when the humans destined to become modern Homo sapiens evolved minds comparable to ours. Historically, this was thought to have happened just a few thousand years ago. However, current understanding suggests it likely took place prior to 50,000 years ago. Using 50,000 years as a benchmark, we recognize this era as when human populations globally attained similar ranges of raw cognitive abilities. This final convergence defines the Cognitive Age, marking the establishment of our ultimate cognitive capacities.
6: Prehistory Age (50,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE)
This is not the story of ancient humans that came before us, this is us. This is the story of our prehistory. A time before any surviving written stories that spans from 50,000 BCE to 4000 BCE (6,000 years ago). After the Cognitive Age, by 50,000 BCE, the era of prehistory for modern humans begins. When telling the story of life on Earth, words matter but ultimately it’s up to the author. Since this is our story, this is also the age in which I start using BCE rather than “years ago.” This is also the period in which I use the term “modern humans.” I refer to other humans before 50,000 years ago as “ancient humans.” Any interbreeding early in this age had little effect on cognitive ability, indicating that our cognitive abilities were fully set prior to this age.
Exhibit 1 for setting the start of our prehistory to 50,000 BCE is the Sentinelese people and their role is explained in the next section.
For now, understand these ancient peoples are the various tribes that spread across the globe and became us, from Africa to Europe to Asia. This age assumes humans had the same raw cognitive abilities as we have today. The development of modern human diversity was a combination of nature and nurture. All human populations had similar cognitive potential (nature), even while faster-evolving superficial differences like hair and skin color evolved in response to various environments. Any differences in archaeological evidence simply reflects culture (nurture). Culture is a reflection of environmental factors, the free-will of people, and their luck with cultural transmission. Stable or unstable environments, complex social interactions, and the transmission of knowledge across generations contributed to each diverse culture. They utilized their nature, which is our nature, to nurture various cultures and ways of life, each unique and complex, reflecting “their way.”
So, what are the big stories that frame this new narrative of the paleolithic? If you think about just the stories of your life, you can begin to understand the number of events and stories that unfolded over the last 3.3 million years. For our purposes, three stories stand out: the Sentinelese people, the story of the neanderthal-sapiens split, and the story of antecessor-heidelbergensis peoples.
The Story of the Sentinelese People
The Sentinelese people, who inhabit North Sentinel Island in the Andaman archipelago, provide a compelling case for understanding the cognitive abilities of early humans. Believed to have been isolated since the last major human migrations out of Africa 60 to 70 thousand years ago, the Sentinelese offer a unique window into the past.
Genetically isolated, their cognitive abilities are the same as with other human populations, reinforcing the idea that modern human cognitive abilities were fully developed at least 60,000 years ago. Isolated, they survived and built a rich hunter-gatherer culture.
Genetic markers allow us to identify and group human populations. Studies on nearby relatives of the Sentinelese, other indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, indicate that these groups possess some of the earliest genetic markers, with the Sentinelese people having the oldest unique genetic markers of all humans.
This evidence supports the conclusion that differences in archaeological records among various human populations are not indicative of differences in raw cognitive ability. Instead, these differences reflect the complex interplay of environmental factors, cultural transmission, and historical circumstances.
The story of the Sentinelese people underscores the fact that our cognitive abilities were established not just a few thousand years ago, but well before 60,000 years ago in Africa. These were the people who migrated out of Africa, encountered and sometimes interbred with other hominins, and ultimately became the modern humans we are today.
The Neanderthal Story
The Neanderthals, who lived from approximately 400,000 to 31,000 years ago, provide further evidence for the complexity of human cognitive evolution. Neanderthals shared a common ancestor with Homo sapiens about 440,000 years ago and exhibited a range of behaviors that indicate advanced cognitive abilities. They made sophisticated tools, created art, and engaged in complex social practices.
The Neanderthals’ cognitive abilities are further evidenced by their burial practices and the use of symbolic objects, which imply a capacity for abstract thought and cultural transmission. The interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans including around 50,000 to 60,000 years ago introduced genetic diversity into the Homo sapiens gene pool, but it did not fundamentally alter the cognitive abilities that were already in place.
This story justifies the division of the last 440,000 years into distinct stages. The gradual development of complex communication by this time, the rapid evolution of the brain and cultural advancements prior to this point, and the earlier rise of human-like thinking and mastery of fire during the Fire Age are all critical phases in human cognitive evolution. These phases reflect significant milestones that contributed to the development of the cognitive and cultural capabilities that characterize modern humans.
The neanderthal story underscores the fact that our nature was not a dramatic rise in raw cognitive abilities before 60,000 years ago, it was a slower process with the bulk of our smarts established before 440,000 years ago.
The Story of heidelbergensis and antecessor
The evolutionary history of Homo sapiens is intricate and multifaceted, involving several ancestral species that roamed across Africa, Europe, and Asia. Two key players in this narrative are Homo heidelbergensis and Homo antecessor. Ongoing research continues to explore their roles in the evolutionary lineage of modern humans.
The presence of the hyoid bone, essential for speech, in heidelbergensis suggests that they may have had the capability for complex vocal communication. We know they had a complex culture which further supports the need for advanced communication. The earliest intact hyoid bone dates back to about 700,000 to 770,000 years ago, indicating the likelihood for speech by the time of our common ancestors before the emergence of neanderthals and sapiens.
Homo heidelbergensis lived around 600,000 to 200,000 years ago and is the likely common ancestor of both neanderthals and modern humans. Fossil evidence from sites across Africa and Europe, including the famous Mauer mandible from Germany, shows that they were adept tool-makers and hunters. The robust facial features and large brain size of Homo heidelbergensis suggest a high level of adaptability and cognitive ability, which allowed them to thrive in diverse environments. Some researchers argue that this species is ancestral to Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, and Denisovans.
Most researchers believe heidelbergensis is a direct-line ancestor of modern humans. The discussion usually divides between early and late heidelbergensis. The generally agreed-upon view is that there was almost certainly an early heidelbergensis common ancestor, with the possibility that this common ancestor could have been from the later period. Even those who do not share this view generally agree that if they are not a direct-line ancestor, our ancestors likely interbred with them.
Homo antecessor, discovered at the Gran Dolina site in Spain and dating back to approximately 800,000 years ago, presents another intriguing chapter. This species displays some facial similarities with modern humans, leading to debates about its place in the human lineage. Some researchers initially suggested that Homo antecessor could be the common ancestor of both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, excluding Homo heidelbergensis from this ancestry. However, subsequent analyses, including molecular studies of ancient proteins, indicate that Homo antecessor is more likely a close relative rather than a direct ancestor of modern humans. Current thought is that they are not likely a direct-line ancestor, but it is likely we interbred with them.
The story of the known lifestyles of antecessor and heidelbergensis underscores the fact that our nature was not a dramatic rise in raw cognitive abilities before 440,000 years ago. Once again, it was a slower process with the bulk of the neanderthal-like smarts established before 440,000 years ago.
Conclusion
By dividing the Paleolithic into six ages based on cognitive development and cultural advancements, we gain a more nuanced perspective on human history. While this framework provides a structured approach, it’s crucial to remember that these ages are conceptual tools rather than rigid markers. The complex interplay of biology, environment, and culture has shaped human evolution in ways that may defy simple categorization.
Let’s conclude this article with one final intriguing thought. Animals do not bury their dead; they leave them exposed to the elements. Those carcasses get scavenged and mostly disappear. Only about one in a billion bones fossilizes.
Humans, on the other hand, bury their dead, frequently deep in the ground, or they burn them. When items are buried, they survive the test of time better. Our earliest confirmed burial is Mtoto, dating back to about 78,000 years ago in Africa. We also have potential burials in Israel dating back to about 100,000 years. Additionally, an intriguing site in Spain, Sima de los Huesos, dates back to 430,000 years ago and contains the remains of about 30 individuals that might have been intentionally placed there.
This area of study is fascinating and suggests that our cognitive abilities were quite advanced at least 440,000 years ago. If this continues to be supported by evidence, there may be a wealth of fossilized burials around the world awaiting discovery. The next time you hear about a halted construction site due to archaeological evidence, keep this in mind. It underscores the importance of encouraging businesses to prioritize archaeology over a rush to break ground on a new profitable project.
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1 thought on “Holistic Paleolithic Framework: A New Look at Prehistory”
As a professor specializing in Paleolithic studies, I find this article to be an exceptional contribution to our understanding of human evolution. I’m not sure I’m ready to give up the established lower, middle, and upper divisions, but I can see using some of these ideas in my classes. The framework’s division into distinct ages, supported by clear evidence, is both innovative and well-substantiated.
It skillfully integrates genetic, archaeological, and cognitive science research, presenting a holistic view that bridges traditional periodization with new scientific insights. The stories of the Sentinelese, Neanderthals, and Homo heidelbergensis-antecessor provide compelling case for this slight switch in focus.
This might just become a valuable tool for both academic and public audiences. It not only clarifies complex evolutionary processes but also emphasizes the interplay between nature and nurture in human development. Something we cover, sure, but the divisions here make sense with the new evidence we are seeing.