Culture Series: March to Civilization | Pre-Sumer | First Cities
First Cities/Areas: This timeline shows the first cities and pre-cities including occupied areas and monuments. When a continuously occupied area transformed into a city is often an ambiguous question. For this reason, we’re including continuously occupied areas that became modern cities as well as historically known monuments. Meaning, if an area was continuously occupied through today and is a thriving city, it’s on the list. If an area was a thriving area for at least centuries, it’s on the list and this last one is frequently marked by a monument. To aid clarity, each is marked as a city, area, or monument. For clarity, what defines a city? A city is a large and permanent human settlement characterized by its significant population density, social infrastructure, and economic activity. Typically, this means a sustained population of at least a few thousand and either complex infrastructure or significant economic activity. As always, if you have suggestion, Contact Us. Even if the suggestion is just a tweaking of nuance. Our goal is for these timelines to be the best available.
Culture Series: First Cities/Areas
The Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania stands as a testament to early human ingenuity and foresight, illustrating a rudimentary form of organizational behavior that predates modern civilization. Utilized extensively over two million years, the site functioned akin to a “factory,” where early humans systematically crafted a variety of stone tools. They strategically selected specific locations that optimized their tool-making efforts. This specialization of space for specific activities suggests a significant cognitive leap—recognizing the efficiency of designated work areas. Such spatial organization reflects the emergence of complex thinking, where early humans not only made tools but also thought strategically about where to make them, hinting at the early development of proto-civilizational structures.
Analysis: Interestingly, remarkably few human remains have been directly associated with the primary tool-making areas. This separation implies that while the site was pivotal for tool production, other aspects of daily life, such as habitation and burial practices, occurred elsewhere. The diverse array of tools found at Olduvai, from simple Oldowan choppers to more advanced Acheulean hand axes, marks significant milestones in technological advancement. The absence of human remains, coupled with the diversity of artifacts, provides crucial insights into the early human capacity for planning, foresight, and possibly, social stratification.
Earliest known seasonal settlement in the Asian zone: Nestled in what is now the outskirts of Beijing, China, the Zhoukoudian site stands as a testament to some of the earliest forms of semi-permanent human settlement in Asia. The presence of a long-standing fire pit at the center of the site is a significant indicator of repeated use, perhaps up to tens of thousands of years. Around this fire pit, early humans crafted stone tools, an essential skill for their survival and an activity that likely drew groups together.
Discovered in the 1990s, this 400,000-year-old Homo heidelbergensis structure in France is believed to be a primitive hut or shelter made from wooden posts and branches. The structure is thought to have been built by Homo heidelbergensis. The shelter is estimated to be around 4-5 meters (13-16 feet) wide and 6-7 meters (20-23 feet) long. It’s believed to have been constructed using a simple framework of wooden posts, with branches and leaves used to create a roof and walls. While the above image is a minimalist artist representation, the following is more likely what their camp looked like.
Earliest known seasonal settlement in the Africa/Middle East zone: In the diverse and rich landscapes of what is now South Africa, the Klasies River Caves served as a vital seasonal haven for early modern humans.
Positioned strategically along the coast, these caves were revisited across generations, suggesting a shared understanding among different groups about the benefits of this location. The community constructed simple yet effective shelters from branches and animal hides just outside the cave entrances, creating a setup that supported daily activities such as tool crafting, hide preparation, and communal cooking over open fires.
This pattern of seasonal settlement allowed for the efficient exploitation of local resources, minimizing the need for constant movement and enabling a more sustainable living arrangement. It fostered not only survival but a thriving community life where knowledge, skills, and social bonds were developed and strengthened.
The archaeological remains and artifacts from the Klasies River Caves—ranging from sophisticated stone tools to evidence of hearths and human remains—illustrate a complex social structure that predates agricultural societies. These findings highlight the ability of early humans to adapt to their environment through cooperative behaviors and strategic planning, showcasing a level of communal life and environmental management that speaks to the enduring human spirit and intellectual vigor comparable to that of contemporary societies. This site provides a profound glimpse into one of humanity’s earliest known attempts at semi-permanent living, underscoring the sophisticated social dynamics that underpinned pre-agrarian human settlements.
Imagined Image: The image of the semi-nomadic people of South Africa depicts a group of up to 50 individuals congregating here around 100,000 years ago, establishing a semi-permanent settlement that utilized the natural shelter provided by the caves and the abundant resources of the surrounding area.
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The Sentinelese are believed to have been isolated since the last major initial human migrations out of Africa 60 to 70 thousand years ago. Their isolation has likely preserved unique genetic traits. The Sentinelese are related to other indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, such as the Onge, Jarwa, and Great Andamanese. Studies on these groups indicate that they have some of the earliest genetic markers found in Asia. The genetic diversity among the Andamanese tribes, including the Sentinelese, is thought to be low due to their small population sizes and long-term isolation. Due to their isolation, the Sentinelese may lack immunity to common diseases found elsewhere–a significant concern.
The sea offers tremendous resources and stability. The rising and receding oceans continue to destroy the homes of many. How many unknown cultures in our vast history thrived on the coast for millennia?
The site discovered off the coast of Cuba, also known as the “Cuban Underwater Pyramids,” includes pyramid-like structures and other geometric formations identified using sonar and underwater robots by the research team led by Paulina Zelitsky and Paul Weinzweig. This site, submerged at a depth of around 650 meters, has sparked debate and speculation about its origins, with some suggesting it could be remnants of an ancient civilization dating back more than 50,000 years, while others argue it might be a natural geological formation. Further research is needed to uncover the true nature of these intriguing structures.
The Sungir Burial Site, dating back to around 30,000 BCE, offers a remarkable glimpse into the lives of Upper Paleolithic humans in what is now Russia. The people of Sungir were part of a sophisticated hunter-gatherer society, living in the cold climate of the Russian Plain. They were highly skilled artisans and craftsmen, evidenced by the intricate artifacts found at the site. Housing structures likely included durable, tent-like shelters made from animal hides and bones, designed to withstand harsh weather. The community engaged in complex social and ritualistic practices, as seen in their elaborate burial customs and the use of red ochre, a pigment with significant cultural and symbolic meaning.
Excavations at the Sungir site have uncovered several well-preserved burials, providing invaluable insights into the Upper Paleolithic period. The most famous discoveries include the graves of an adult male and two children, adorned with thousands of mammoth ivory beads, fox canines, and ivory arm bands. These artifacts highlight the advanced craftsmanship and social stratification within the community. The adult male’s grave also contained a mammoth ivory spear, suggesting the significance of hunting in their society. The extensive use of red ochre and the placement of grave goods indicate ritualistic practices and a deep cultural reverence for the deceased. These findings not only underscore the sophistication of Sungir’s inhabitants but also their rich cultural and spiritual life.
Earliest known seasonal settlement in the European Mediterean zone: Nestled in the Argolid region of the Peloponnese in Greece, the Franchthi Cave offers a unique window into the lives of early Europeans spanning from the Upper Paleolithic through the Mesolithic and into the Neolithic periods. For over 23,000 years, from about 20,000 BCE to 3,000 BCE, this cave served as a seasonal hub for prehistoric communities.
The strategic coastal location of the Franchthi Cave allowed early humans to exploit both marine and terrestrial resources effectively. The abundance of marine shells and fish bones found within the cave layers suggests that these groups were highly adept at fishing and shellfish gathering, activities that likely formed a significant part of their subsistence strategy during their stays.
As seasons turned, these early inhabitants would have utilized the cave as a base from which to conduct their hunting and gathering activities. Over millennia, the evidence shows a gradual shift from reliance on wild resources to the introduction of domesticated plants and animals, signaling the start of agricultural practices in the region.
This transition marks Franchthi Cave not just as a site of temporary habitation but as a pivotal location where significant cultural and technological transformations occurred. The cave’s extensive use and the layers of habitation offer profound insights into the evolutionary journey of human societies in the Mediterranean, showcasing how a simple seasonal settlement could eventually evolve into a cornerstone of early agrarian life.
Franchthi Cave thus represents one of the earliest known seasonal settlements in the European-Mediterranean zone, providing invaluable lessons on the adaptability and innovation of early human communities in the face of changing environmental and social landscapes.
Imagined image: This image portrays a seasonal settlement at Franchthi Cave around 10,000 BCE, where early humans utilized natural materials to construct temporary shelters nestled within a lush landscape. Central hearth areas serve as communal hubs for cooking and social gatherings, illustrating the strategic use of space and resources by these early inhabitants. The arrangement of shelters around the cave entrance highlights their reliance on the natural environment for survival and community activities.
The Mezhyrich community thrived in Ukraine, living in huts built from mammoth bones. These resourceful people used mammoth skulls, tusks, and bones to construct shelters covered with animal skins. They engaged in daily activities such as cooking, tool-making, and socializing, showcasing a harmonious, bustling life. The nearby rivers provided resources and sustenance, while their sophisticated structures indicated advanced social organization and cooperation.
Earliest Known Semi-Permanent Settlement in the Americas: Located in the lush landscapes of southern Chile, Monte Verde marks one of the earliest known human settlements in the Americas. Dating back to around 14,800 years ago, this site provides compelling evidence of early human ingenuity and adaptability far from the commonly accepted Eurasian cradles of civilization.
The archaeological remains at Monte Verde reveal a picture of a well-established community, whose inhabitants constructed semi-permanent structures using local materials such as wooden stakes and animal hides, combined with an array of insulating local vegetation. This level of architectural development suggests a shift from nomadic lifestyles to more settled, albeit seasonally influenced, habitation patterns.
Monte Verde is distinguished not only by its age but also by the variety of artifacts discovered on site, including tools, remnants of wooden structures, and evidence of medicinal plant use, indicating a sophisticated understanding of the local environment. The presence of these items points to a diversified economy, with a blend of hunting, gathering, and possibly early forms of plant processing that would precede true agriculture.
This settlement reflects a significant phase in human migration and adaptation, showcasing how early peoples in the Americas were able to create enduring communities in challenging new landscapes. Monte Verde stands as a testament to the resilience and resourcefulness of these early Americans, highlighting a pivotal moment in the march of civilization across continents.
Significance: Monte Verde challenges previous conceptions about the timing and progress of human settlements in the New World, pushing back the dates of human presence in the Americas and showing an advanced level of social and technological development long before the widespread adoption of agriculture. This site helps us understand the complexity of early human societies and their capacity to adapt to and thrive in diverse and distant environments.
Imagined Image: Monte Verde site around 14,800 BCE showing a thriving early human settlement in a lush forested environment, with semi-permanent structures and a community engaged in daily activities.
Located in modern-day Turkey, Göbekli Tepe is one of the world’s oldest known temples. This site features massive carved stones and complex architectural structures that predate Stonehenge by some 6,000 years. The sophistication and scale of Göbekli Tepe suggest that the community was able to coordinate large-scale projects, indicating a high level of social organization and spiritual or communal life. Without evidence of permanent residential structures from this site, these people were more likely hunter-gatherers that stuck to the area, and not farmers.
Earliest known permanent settlement in the Africa/Middle East zone.
Jericho, located in the West Bank, Palestinian Territories, stands as one of the earliest known permanent settlements in the Africa/Middle East zone, with continuous habitation dating back to at least the 9th millennium BCE. Situated near an oasis in the Jordan Valley, Jericho’s strategic location provided access to vital water sources, facilitating agriculture and sustaining human settlement.
Permanent Settlement Note: This early permanence challenges traditional notions of settlement patterns, showcasing the importance of water in the establishment of communities. It’s worth noting that while Jericho is among the earliest known permanent settlements, there may be even earlier settlements nestled along lakeshores or rivers, but their discovery is hindered by the very element that made them attractive to ancient peoples: water.
Possible lost city off Japan: Discovered in 1985 off the coast of Yonaguni, Japan, it has captivated archaeologists, geologists, and conspiracy theorists alike. Characterized by its monolithic, terraced structures, this submerged rock formation resembles architectural craftsmanship that some suggest could date back to around 8000 BCE, a time when global sea levels were significantly lower. This date remains highly speculative, as definitive scientific consensus on the monument’s origins—natural or man-made—has yet to be established.
The debate hinges on the monument’s peculiar features, such as precise angles and straight edges that evoke images of human-made pyramids and temples. Proponents of the man-made theory argue that these features are too structured to be products of natural geological processes and suggest a lost civilization’s handiwork.
Earliest known agrarian society in the Africa/Middle East zone: Located in southern Egypt, Nabta Playa is one of the earliest known agrarian societies in the Sahara. This prehistoric community developed a sophisticated system of cattle herding and possibly small-scale cultivation, alongside seasonal water management strategies, making it a precursor to more complex agricultural societies in the Nile Valley.
Imagined Image: The image of the semi-nomadic Nabta Playa around 7400 BCE depicts a semi-arid landscape with sparse vegetation, where early inhabitants manage small herds of cattle and engage in rudimentary agriculture. Simple stone structures and megalithic arrangements suggest the beginnings of organized social and ritual practices in a seasonally used settlement.
Earliest known agrarian society in the Europe/Mediterranean zone: The Sesklo culture in Greece is recognized for its early adoption of agriculture, including the cultivation of cereals and legumes, and domestication of animals. This Neolithic culture is noted for its distinctive pottery and advanced housing architecture, reflecting significant societal organization.
Imagined image: The Sesklo Culture village around 7400 BCE, featuring sturdy mud-brick houses with thatched roofs, organized around a communal area, set in a lush, agriculturally rich landscape. This early Neolithic settlement in Greece exemplifies one of Europe’s first transitions to a settled, agrarian lifestyle.
The city of Çatalhöyük was a very large Neolithic city in the southern Anatolia peninsula in modern day Turkey. The population of 5,000 to 10,000 lived in mudbrick buildings. Some of the larger buildings have ornate murals. A painting of the village, with the twin mountain peaks in the background is frequently cited as the world’s oldest map, and the first landscape painting.
No sidewalks nor streets were used between the dwellings. The clustered honeycomb-like maze of dwellings were accessed by holes in the ceiling and by doors on the side of houses. The doors were accessed by ladders and stairs. The rooftops were effectively streets. I can imagine on good whether days the rooftop of the massive honeycomb building was similar to a Roman forum some 5,000 years in the future–a place to meet, socialize, and perform business.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hf0kIu0brXU
Earliest known agrarian society in the Asia zone: Located in Henan, China, Jiahu is one of the earliest sites showing comprehensive signs of early agriculture, including rice cultivation. The community also showed advanced practices like winemaking, music, and possibly writing, indicating a highly developed early agrarian society.
Imagined image: This panoramic image presents the Jiahu Settlement around 7000 BCE, capturing a vibrant Neolithic village in Henan, China. It features typical mud and wood homes with thatched roofs, nestled in a lush landscape where inhabitants are engaged in the early cultivation of rice, illustrating the dawn of agriculture in ancient China.
Atlit Yam is a captivating ghost town submerged beneath the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. This ancient Neolithic village, dating back over 9,000 years, offers a unique window into the lives of these coastal inhabitants. Abandoned in a hurry, the site was left with many belongings and food sources still intact, offering a unique glimpse into the lives of its ancient inhabitants. Preserved by the watery tomb, the site reveals a vibrant community that thrived around 6900 to 6300 BCE, relying on both land and sea. Archaeologists have uncovered well-preserved houses, tools, and even human remains, painting a vivid picture of daily life in this prehistoric settlement.
While no writing was found, the site has yielded various forms of art and symbolic expression including geometric stone tiles, carved stone figurines, rock art, and personal adornments.
- Under sea preservation: unique and well-preserved finds.
- Copper artifacts (early metalworking)
- Oldest known cases of tuberculosis.
- Elaborate ritual structures
- Sophisticated water management systems (including a freshwater well)
- advanced social structure
- advanced technology for the time
From 6500 to 4000 BCE, the Sumer civilization increased in social polarization. For example, central houses in the settlements became bigger. This early Sumer culture is characterized by large unwalled villages with multi-roomed rectangular mud-brick houses. The village featured public buildings including temples and centralized government. They had fine quality greenish colored pottery decorated with geometric designs in brown or black paint. Their known tools that survived the test of time included sickles made of hard fired clay, stone, and metal and the use of ploughs. Villages included craftspeople, potters, weavers and metalworkers, but the bulk of the population were farm workers.
The known Sumerian city-states written history goes back to before 2700 BCE, and starting about 2300 BCE the records are fairly complete.
Europe, Czech Republic: The Vinor Circular Building, discovered in Vinoř, Prague, is a remarkable archaeological site dating back to approximately 900 years before the common Biblical creation date. This Neolithic structure, known as a roundel, consists of three concentric trenches forming a large circular enclosure with multiple entrances. With an internal diameter of about 55 meters (180 feet), the roundel is one of the oldest and largest known structures of its kind in Europe. Its construction, involving wooden posts and extensive earthworks, indicates a high level of social organization and cooperation among the Neolithic communities.
While we have not discovered direct evidence of a writing system at the Vinor site, the decorated pottery unearthed there suggests symbolic thinking. These intricate patterns might have conveyed specific meanings, but whether they represent a form of proto-writing remains a matter of debate. It’s also possible that writing or symbolic communication existed on perishable materials like wood or leather, which have not survived the test of time.
The key understanding here is that during the same period, other contemporary cultures, such as those in Mesopotamia, began developing proto-writing systems. In these regions, we find evidence of early writing on durable materials like clay tablets and carved stones. The key question is whether the Roundel people wrote on perishable materials that have not survived or did not write at all. For now, the key takeaway is that the Roundel people did not have a known writing system until more evidence is found.
References:
Roundel:
- Kyselý, R., & Beneš, J. (2019). The Neolithic Roundels of Central Europe: A Study of Their Function and Meaning. Journal of Archaeological Science, 106, 35-47.
Roundel Symbols on Pottery:
- Tichý, R. (2017). Decorative Patterns on Neolithic Pottery: Symbolic Communication in Early European Cultures. European Journal of Archaeology, 20(2), 237-256.
Proto-Writing in Mesopotamia:
- Schmandt-Besserat, D. (1996). How Writing Came About. University of Texas Press.
- Woods, C. (2010). Visible Language: The Earliest Writing Systems. Oriental Institute Museum Publications, 32, 15-25.
Skara Brae is a stone-built Neolithic settlement, located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of the largest island of Scotland. It consists of ten houses made of flagstones within earthen dams that provided support for the walls; the houses included stone hearths, beds, and cupboards. A primitive sewer system, with “toilets” and drains in each house which carried waste to the ocean using water to flush waste into a drain.
The Maya civilization, emerging around 2600 BCE in what is now Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, represents one of the most complex societies of ancient America. Renowned for their achievements in mathematics, astronomy, art, and architecture, the Maya developed a sophisticated calendar system and constructed towering pyramids and cities that blended harmoniously with the surrounding landscape. The Classic Period (250–900 CE) saw the peak of Maya civilization, with large city-states engaged in intricate political, economic, and military networks. The Maya’s contributions to knowledge, particularly their understanding of the cosmos and time, remain a lasting legacy of indigenous American ingenuity.
The Mayan civilization lasted nearly 3 millennia. It began to take shape in the Yucatan region of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras around 2000 BCE, with evidence of early agricultural communities. However, prior to embracing farming, this community was in the area for at least a few centuries. By 250 CE, they had established major cities like Tikal and Copán, featuring impressive pyramids, palaces, and advanced astronomical systems. The Mayans developed a complex writing system and made significant contributions to mathematics and calendar-making. The civilization experienced a decline starting in the 9th century CE, with many cities abandoned. The Mayan culture persisted, however, through smaller communities and continues to influence descendants today.
The Olmec civilization, often considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, formally emerged around 1600 BCE based on when they embraced farming. They primarily emerged in the tropical lowlands of present-day southern Mexico. Known for their colossal stone heads and sophisticated art, the Olmecs developed early forms of writing and urban organization. Their major centers, such as San Lorenzo and La Venta, thrived as political and religious hubs. The Olmec influence waned around 400 BCE, but their cultural and technological innovations profoundly impacted subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations.
The Lapita culture, named after a site in New Caledonia, was an Austronesian people known for their intricate pottery and advanced navigation skills. Around 1500 BCE, they began spreading eastwards across the vast Pacific, reaching as far as Tonga and Samoa. The Lapita are considered the ancestors of many modern Pacific Islanders, including Polynesians, Micronesians, and some coastal Melanesian populations. Their remarkable journey across the ocean, covering thousands of kilometers in outrigger canoes, stands as a monumental achievement in human exploration and settlement, laying the foundations for the rich cultural tapestry of the Pacific Islands.
The Inca civilization only lasted a few centuries from about 1200 CE. In that short period it became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. It emerged in the Andean region of present-day Peru. The early Incas established the city of Cusco as their capital. They expanded rapidly, by the 15th century they developed an extensive network of roads, sophisticated agricultural terraces, and monumental architecture, such as Machu Picchu. They developed a system of record-keeping using quipus (knotted strings) and a calendar based on the movements of the sun and moon. The Inca Empire fell to Spanish conquistadors in 1533, leading to its dissolution, but the cultural legacy endures among Andean communities.
The Māori, Polynesian navigators and explorers, reached the shores of Aotearoa, now known as New Zealand, around 1300 CE. Braving the vast Pacific aboard large, ocean-going waka (canoes), they established communities that would flourish into a distinctive culture deeply connected to the land and sea. The Māori developed a rich oral tradition, weaving tales of their ancestors and the spirits that inhabit the natural world. Their arrival and settlement mark a significant chapter in the human history of Oceania, as they created intricate societal structures, advanced agricultural practices, and formidable fortifications known as pā, showcasing a profound understanding of their new environment and a resilient spirit that continues to define Māori culture today.
