In the 1700s, as part of extending skepticism, David Hume questioned the principle of cause and effect. He argued that just because one event follows another repeatedly, does mean there is a connection. This is part of his broader skepticism about induction. His skepticism forces us to be more precise in our statements. It set humanity on the path of exploring causation versus correlation.

In 30 Philosophers, I first cover this as karma in chapter 6 on Buddhism. In the teachings of the original Buddha, he incorporated local beliefs in Mount Meru, with its six realms of existence. He asserted that the essence of beings, not the self, could be reborn in any of these realms based on their karma. 

In contrast to karma, I also cover cause and effect. In chapter 14, I contrast karma and cause and effect as well as introduce my idea of holistic eudaimonia. While karma carries spiritual connotations, cause-and-effect is the non-religious equivalent. From this perspective, cause and effect represents the idea that every action has a reaction, and that our choices and behaviors will inevitably have consequences.

Finally, my concept of holistic eudaimonia transcends Aristotle’s notion of contentment, and emphasizes the lasting impact of one’s life, achievements, and reputation. This can be as simple as your day-to-day kind acts, creating art, or even having children. You live your life in a way that maximizes the rippling of good results into the future void. After telling the story of human thought over the last 5,000 years, I even end the book with this idea.