Check out A Short Summary of Evolution for an introduction to how evolution works. Early LUCA evolution includes viruses and bacteria from earlier and plants, fungi, and animals.

Evolution

Evolution

Darwin identified several key categories, which are often discussed today as natural selection, sexual selection, and artificial selection.

Our true origin story.

LUCA: Last Universal Common Ancestor

LUCA's form is unknown. Imagined image of various LUCA shapes.

3.75 Billion years ago (+/- 100 million)

DNA, Ribosomes, and ATP

Prokaryotic Life

Archaea look like bacteria at first glance — small, simple, and lacking a nucleus. But they are fundamentally different.

3.73 Billion Years Ago (after LUCA)

Membrane and metabolic diversity.

Archaea Diverge

Both archaea and bacteria are prokaryotes — cells without nuclei.

3.73 Billion Years Ago (shortly after LUCA)

Ether-linked membranes and distinct genetic machinery

Touch: Life Learns to Feel Force

About 3.72 billion years ago, right after LUCA, when cells emerged, touch became the most ancient form of biological sensing: required to physically navigate reality.

~3.72 Billion Years Ago (after prokaryotes)

Mechanical sensitivity to pressure and membrane stretch

First True Bacteria

Bacteria and archaea are both prokaryotes, but archaea’s membrane chemistry and genetic machinery are fundamentally different — and archaeal ancestry gave rise to eukaryotic cells.

~3.7 Billion years ago (shortly after LUCA)

Peptidoglycan cell wall and Ester-linked lipids

Virus: Riboviria (Early RNA replicators)

About 3.7 billion years ago, RNA virus ancestors may trace back to the RNA world, but we can’t prove whether they predate LUCA or arose just after.

~3.7 Billion Years Ago (+/- 100 million)

Second Oceans: From Fresh to Salty

3.5 Billion Years Ago

3.5 to 2.5 Billion Years Ago

Oldest Known Fossil-Microorganisms

micro organisms cells background

3.42 Billion BCE

3.42 to 3.7 Billion BCE

Bacteriophage → Duplodnaviria

Around 3.2 billion years ago, the Duplodnaviria evolved a high-pressure, icosahedral protein armor that turned viruses into biological syringes capable of injecting DNA into any domain of life.

~3.2 Billion Years Ago (+/- 200 million)

The HK97-Fold (Steel Pouch)

Bacteria Photosynthesis begins

~3 Billion years ago

Photosynthetic experiments

Virus: Varidnaviria

About 2.75 billion years ago, the Varidnaviria evolved a unique "Double Jelly-Roll" protein fold to build massive, diverse shells, allowing viruses to scale up from tiny parasites to "giant" viruses that mimic cells.

~2.75 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

double jelly-roll capsid DNA viruses

Cyanobacteria: Sun Energy as Food!

top view of woman holding paper cut sun and planet with renewable energy sources on turquoise

2.7 Billion Years Ago

2.7 to 2.6 BYA

Blue-Green Bacteria (Not Algae)

Long before plants covered the land, cyanobacteria were already harvesting sunlight. In doing so, they slowly helped change Earth’s oceans and atmosphere, preparing the way for more complex life.

2.65 Billion years ago (+/- 50 million years)

Bacteria cyanobacteria & oxygenic photosynthesis

~2.5 Billion years ago (+/- 100 million)

Photosynthetic Specialization Emerges

Third Atmosphere: Oxygen Atmosphere

planet-blue-atmosphere

2.4 Billion Years Ago

2.4 BYA to about 540 MYA

The First True Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes divided labor within single-celled life, featuring a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. From them branched plants, fungi, and animals.

2.4 Billion Years Ago (+/- 300 million years)

Bacterial Endosymbiosis: Origin of Eukaryotes

About 2 billion years ago, bacteria are added to cells and that group leads to eukaryotes. You are a walking chimera ecosystem made of an Archaea host and trillions of Bacterial power-plants.

~2.4 Billion years ago (+/- 100 million)

Bacteria are added to eukaryote ancestor cells

Bacteria Aerobic metabolism expands

~2.2 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

Oxygen-respiring bacteria diversify

Protozoa Evolve

About 2 billion years ago, eukaryotic cells are defined by a membrane-bound nucleus and internal organelles. Their emergence created the structural foundation for complex life.

2 Billion Years Ago (+/- 100 million years)

Nucleus and internal organelles

LECA: Likely Sexual Reproduction

LECA is the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor. LECA reproduced sexually pushing the mixing of DNA back before 1.75 billion years ago.

~1.75 billion years ago (+/- 50 million)

Last Eukaryote Common Ancestor

Monodnaviria

About 1.75 billion years ago, Monodnaviria evolved as "runaway" genetic loops (plasmids) that stole structural proteins from other viruses to become independent, single-stranded DNA parasites.

~1.75 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

single-stranded DNA viruses

Plant Ancestors Split from Animal and Fungi Ancestors

Plant cells feature chloroplasts, a cellulose cell wall, and a large central vacuole for holding water. They also have plasmodesmata, tiny channels between cells. And of course, photosynthetic chlorophyll.

1.65 Billion Yeas Ago (+/- 50 million)

Life that later leads to these kingdoms separates.

Bikonts: Plant Ancestors Split Off Again (Front-Pull Pioneers)

About 1.55 billion years ago, bikonts evolved two flagella to pull themselves forward.

~1.55 Billion Years Ago (+/- 5 million)

Two "Anterior" Flagella - plant rowboats

Red-Green Algae Ancestors Split

Modern red and green algae share a common ancestor about 1.5 billion years ago. The green algae branch gave rise to plants about 475 mya.

1.5 Billion Years Ago (+/- 100 million years)

Chloroplast refinement, chlorophyll variants

Unikonts: Single-Motor flagella Reform

By 1.3 billion years ago, our animal-fungi ancestor, the Unikonts, stopped using two pulling flagella and narrowed it down to one pushing one.

~1.3 Billion Years Ago (+/- 100 million)

Transition to a Single Flagellum

Bacteria Diversify: Major modern phyla

~1.3 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

Retroviruses (within Riboviria)

About 1.25 billion years ago, Retroviruses emerged by transforming "jumping genes" into infectious agents, mastering the ability to rewrite a host’s permanent genetic code.

~1.25 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

Stitch themselves permanently into the host’s genome

Intracellular Flow and Nutrient Exchange

Eukaryote cells evolve cytoplasmic streaming and cytoskeleton-guided transport systems to circulate nutrients, organelles, and waste internally.

~1.2 Billion Years Ago (+/- 300 million)

Cytoplasmic streaming and vesicle transport

Opisthokonts: True Posterior Flagellum

By 1.15 billion years ago, our animial-fungi ancestor evolve a true posterior flagellum. Single-celled animal sperm has a lineage back to this ancestor.

~1.15 Billion Years Ago (+/- 50 million)

12 unique amino acids + glycogen energy storage + True Posterior Flagellum

Oogamy: Early Gamete Specialization Before Animals

Sperm and egg cell on microscope. Scientific background.

Sexual reproduction predates animals, and differentiated sperm–egg systems evolved in single-celled eukaryotic lineages long before animals emerged.

~1.1 Billion Years Ago (inferred, +/- 100 million)

Small motile gamete and larger nutrient-rich gamete

Giant viruses (within Varidnaviria)

About 15 million ordinary viruses could hide inside the period at the end of this sentence. A billion years ago, some viruses turned into genetic junkyard collectors and swelled to nearly a micrometer across. Only 150,000 of these giants would fit inside that same dot — about ten times wider, and nearly a thousand times more massive, than the common viruses of today.

~1 Billion years ago (+/- 200 million)

Extreme genetic theft

Fungi Ancestors Split Off: (aquatic Holomycota)

By 950 million years ago, fungi ancestors used growth over motion to survive.

~950 Million Years Ago (+/- 50 million)

External digestion + chitin cell walls

Animal Ancestors Split Off: Cadherin Cell Glue (Holozoa)

This image shows three plausible body plans for early holozoans, ancestors of animals. A loose spherical cluster suggests early cadherin-based adhesion. The pear-shaped flagellated cell reflects choanoflagellate-like forms. The amoeboid shape represents flexible, crawling types.

~750 Million Years Ago (+/- 50 million)

First Multicellular Animals

640 million years ago, the first multicell animals were almost certainly just collections of types of cells and reproduced.

640 Million Years Ago (+/- 20 million)

Stable cell adhesion and tissue specialization

Presentient Animals Emerge: The Ediacaran Prelude

635-600 Million Years Ago

Proto-brain; Pre-brain memory; Presentient.

First Animal Egg Layers

~620 Million Years Ago (+/- 20 million)

tissue-level reproduction

Chemoreception: Taste and Smell Emerge

600 Mya

First True Fungi: Chytrids (and living fossils)

Chytrid-like fungi, reproducing with single posterior flagellated spores, are present in the fossil record by ~600 MYA.

~600 Million years ago (+/- 20 million)

Sperm-like reproduction to spread seed to new soil.

Mold Spores Emerge

A mold spore is usually just one cell, but it carries the power to begin again. Released into the world, these tiny travelers helped fungi spread across early Earth and become some of nature’s great recyclers.

~590 Million years ago (+/- 30 million)

First True Animals – Comb Jellyfish

Jellyfish moving through water

555 Million Years Ago (+/- 5 million)

Nerve nets and muscle cells

Internal Fluid Transport in Early Animals

~550 Million Years Ago (+/- 25 million)

Diffusion and body-cavity circulation

True Circulatory Systems: Blood Veins

545 Million Years Ago (after through-gut digestion: mouth/anus)

Circulatory fluid transport (veins)

Vision Emerges: The Pre-fish Chordates

540 Mya

Vision Emerges; Proto-Simple Brains; Pre-vertebrate Cord.

First Vertebrates

530 Million BCE

530 to 520 Million Years Ago

Earliest Known Hunter

520 Million Years Ago

First Simple Brains; Proto-Short-Term Memory; Simple Sentience.

Simple Sentience Settles: Haikouichthys

520 Million BCE

Simple Brains; Proto-Short-Term Memory; Simple Sentience.

Simple Cephalopod Sentience Evolves

510 Million BCE

Not a fish ancestor, not our ancestor.

Hyphae break rock

The conquest of land wasn’t driven by size — it was driven by threads. By 480 million years ago, hyphae began breaking into rock to make land habitable.

~480 MYA (+/- 20 million)

Filamentous growth (hyphae); terrestrial colonization

Embryophytes: First True Plants

First land plants.

470 Million Years Ago (+/- 10 million)

Early water transport

Fungal Underground Alliance

By 450 million years ago, fungi and plants started a rich dirt alliance. Forests grew because fungi fed them. Plants exchanged sugars for fungi phosphors and minerals.

~450 Million years ago (+/- 10 million)

Arbuscular mycorrhizae (Glomeromycota symbiosis)

Keratin Genes & the Rise of Scales in Fish

425 Million Years Ago

425 MYA (+/- 15 Million Years)

Fungal Great Split: Ascomycota & Basidiomycota

By 425 million years ago, fungi split into ascomycota and basidiomycota. Ascomycota gave rise to yeasts, truffles, and many molds. Basidiomycota gave rise mushrooms, puffballs, and bracket fungi.

~425 Million years ago (+/- 25 million)

Ascomycota and Basidiomycota Split

Fungal Giants of the Devonian

By 420 million years ago, the first giants on land were not plants — but fungi. Giant fungi as tall as 30 feet (9 meters) thrived during the Devonian

~420 MYA (+/- 20 million)

Large upright fungal structures (e.g., Prototaxites)

Oldest Known Air Breather

414 Million BCE

Lungs Evolve: Lobe-Finned Fish and the Lungfish Ancestor

Living fossil fish, Coelacanth.

400 Million BCE

First True Trees: Spore Reproduction

385 Million Years Ago (+/- 5 million years)

Secondary growth wood and deep roots

The Senegal Bichir: A Living Fossil

An early-diverging ray-finned fish whose lobed pectoral fins and paired lungs reflect an ancient branch of bony fish evolution.

~380 million years ago (± 15 million)

Air breathing lungs and lobed pectoral fins

Long-Term Memory Evolves: Tiktaalik

375 Mya

Complex Brains; Long-Term Memory; Simple Sentience.

Land Hearing Emerges: Amphibians

370 Mya

Land Hearing Emerges; Yet Larger Brains.

Reptile Amniotic Eggs

Corn snake hatching, Pantherophis guttatus guttatus, also know as red rat snake

318 Million BCE

Conifers branch off

Early Conifers (Late Carboniferous, ~308 ± 5 mya). Woody gymnosperms with organized cones and drought adaptations.

~308 million years ago (+/- 5 million)

Naked seeds in cones (gymnosperm reproduction)

First Land Herbivore: Tyrannoroter heberti

Tyrannoroter heberti (≈307 million years ago). One of the earliest known plant-experimenting tetrapods, Tyrannoroter heberti hints that land herbivory began not with giants, but with small, evolutionary pioneers over 300 million years ago.

307 million years ago

2026 Discovery Pushing Back Herbivores

Stem Selachians: Modern Sharks LCA

Note the torpedo-shaped body and sweeping tail — a hydrodynamic design that would define sharks for hundreds of millions of years: tapered head, dorsal fin, and powerful tail.

~300 million years ago (± 10 million years)

Proto-Play

300 million years ago

±20 million years

Early Complex Sentience Emerges: Dimetrodon

295 Million BCE

Complex Brains; Long-Term Memory; Early Complex Sentience.

Ginkgo biloba-like Trees: True Leaves

270 Million Years Ago (+/- 5 million years)

Efficient vascular networks inside leaves

Ginkgo biloba — A Living Fossil in My Backyard

ginko, leaf, ginko tree, ginko leaf, nature, medicinal plant, green, tree, ginko, ginko, ginko, ginko, ginko, ginko tree

~270 million years ago (± 20 million years)

Increased light capture area

Plate Tectonics

By dating rocks and fossils scientists can document the movement of the continents over time. (Public domain image, United States Geological Survey.)

Circa 260 Million BCE

Pine Needles Evolve

252 MYA (+/- 5 million years)

Needle morphology and resin canals

Fungal Survivors of Extinction

The mass extinction at 252 million years ago marks the Permian to Triassic boundary. Fungi are not just participants in ecosystems — they help reset the ground.

~252 MYA (Permian–Triassic boundary)

Massive fungal proliferation after extinction

Pangaea Super Continent Breakup

Animation of the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea and the subsequent drift of its constituents, from the Early Triassic to recent (250 Ma to 0). USGS animation A08

250 Million BCE to 1 CE

Archosauria Diverge Within Reptiles

LCA of crocodiles and birds — the larger archosaur branch that later gave rise to crocodilians, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and birds.

~250 million years ago (+/- 10 million)

LCA of crocodilians and birds (pterosaurs & dinosauria)

Bird-line Archosaurs: Asilisaurus kongwe (within Ornithodira)

245 Million Years Ago

Dinosauromorphs Emerge: Erect hind-limb posture leads to birds and dinosaurs.

Bird-line Archosaur: Nyasasaurus parringtoni

Nyasasaurus is a late bird-line archosaur from just before Dinosauria clearly emerge. It sits on the dinosaur side of Ornithodira, but its exact placement remains uncertain: some analyses place it within Dinosauria, while others place it just outside the group, near other bird-line archosaurs.

243 Million Years Ago

Strengthened hip and shoulder architecture

XX/XY Sex System Emerges: A Tale of Mammalian Evolution

240 Million Years Ago

Marasuchus lilloensis

"<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=50251453" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Marasuchus NT small</a>" by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:NobuTamura" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Nobu Tamura email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com http://spinops.blogspot.com/ http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/</a> is licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>

240 Million Years Ago

Elongated hind limbs, better running, reduced forelimbs

Dinosauria Emerge: True Dinosaurs!

Dinosauria emerge from a single population of a species about 238 million years ago. This population will lead to all dinosaurs and birds including T.Rex, Brontosaurus, and Triceratops.

238 Million years ago (+/- 5 million)

Fully open hip socket (perforated acetabulum)

Pterosaurs Diverge From Dinosaur Ancestors (within Ornithodira)

Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to conquer the air, evolving a unique "finger-wing" anatomy that allowed them to dominate the skies for 160 million years.

~237 million years ago (+/- 2 million)

Pterosauria line: Not in dinosauria (split first).

Theropod Line Diverges Within Dinosaria (from Saurischia)

Theropods were the agile, sharp-toothed dinosaur branch that refined the classic predator body plan. They stood fully upright on two legs, balanced with long tails, used grasping hands, and carried specialized skulls and recurved teeth built for active hunting. Over time, this branch produced everything from small early predators to giant hunters—and eventually birds.

~233 million years ago (±2 million years)

Ancestor of T.Rex and bird-line.

Sauropodomorph Line Diverges Within Dinosaria (from Saurischia)

Sauropodomorphs, in their early forms, were lightly built, often partly bipedal, with long necks, small heads, leaf-shaped teeth, and grasping hands.

~232 million years ago (±2 million years)

Ancestor to the sauropods like brontosaurus.

Ornithischians Diverge Within Dinosauria “Bird Hipped”

Ornithodira is the broader branch that includes dinosaurs, birds, and pterosaurs.

~229 million years ago (±4 million years)

LCA of Pterosaurs and Birds (pterosaurs & dinosauria).

Eoraptor lunensis.

A speculative reconstruction of Eoraptor lunensis. Eoraptor reminds us that classification is not always neat at the beginning of a lineage. Early dinosaurs can be hard to classify because of a mix of traits.

229 Million Years Ago (± 1.5 million)

Platypus–Ape Common Ancestor

225 million years ago (±5 million years)

When dinosaurs rose, our line quietly began.

Pterosaurs Emerge

Pterosaurs were not dinosaurs but do share a common ancestor. They are a distinct group of flying reptiles that emerged in the Late Triassic.

215 Million years ago (+/- 5 million)

Morganucodon: An Early Mammalian

203 Million BCE (+/- 3 million)

Differentiated teeth and true mammalian jaw

Early Play Evolves in Mammals

Play evolved as one of the group survival traits. Lower play abilities evolved in mammals like rodents about 190 million years ago. Higer play abilities evolved in mammals like cats about 80 million years ago.

190 Million Years Ago (+/- 10 million years)

Parental care, brain plasticity, extended juvenile period

Mammals: First Live Births

185 Million BCE

Placental nutrient transfer (in placentals)

Proceratosaurus (T.Rex ancestor)

Proceratosaurus had the same general tyrannosaur-style look: a big head, long tail, strong hind legs, short forelimbs, and a built-for-biting predator shape: D-shaped front teeth and a crest on top of the skull.

Lived from 169 to 164 million years ago.

Not a bird ancestor, but part of the theropod mix.

Bashanosaurus primitivus

Bashanosaurus primitivus is one of the earliest known stegosaurs and a strong candidate for representing an early form close to the ancestry of later plated dinosaurs like Stegosaurus.

~168 million years ago.

Stegosaurus ancestor

Avialae: The Bird Line Diverges (Theropoda)

Around 155 million years ago, an early avialan was probably already broadly Archaeopteryx-like, yet still unmistakably dinosaurian: small feathered theropod with teeth, claws, and a long bony tail.

155 Million years ago (+/- 5 million)

Stegosaurus

Stegosaurus is the classic plated dinosaur most people picture: large back plates, a small head, and a spiked tail used for defense. It lived late in the Jurassic

Lived 152 to 145 million years ago.

First True Bird: Archaeopteryx

Archaeopteryx reminds us that major transformations often happen gradually, with old traits and new traits living side by side for a long time. The story of birds began with their dinosaur past.

149 Million years ago (+/- 1 million)

Modern Trees: Modern Leaves

145 Million Years Ago (+/- 5 million years)

Rapid vascular transport

Confuciusornithiformes Birds Emerge (Now Extinct)

Weird carryovers and side experiments: clawed wings, elaborate ribbon-like tail feathers, and a mix of advanced beak features with a still primitive dinosaurian body.

~131 Million years ago.

Extinct bird line (clawed wings, elaborate ribbon-like tail feathers)

Enantiornithes Birds Emerge (Now Extinct)

Enantiornithes were one of the most successful early bird branches of the Cretaceous, but unlike Confuciusornithiformes, they generally kept their teeth and often looked a bit more like small, sharp-faced bird-dinosaurs than beaked proto-birds.

~131 Million years ago.

Extinct bird line (clawed wings, teeth)

The First Flowers

By 130 Million Years Ago

Molecular analysis might push this back to 149 or maybe even 256 mya.

Complex Sentience Settles: Eomaia scansoria

circa 125 Million BCE

Complex Brains; Long-Term Memory; Complex Sentience; Likely Proto Self-aware.

Animal Vocabulary: Dozens of Words

Eomaia scansoria in their natural environment from about 125 million years ago. These early mammals likely lived in a lush, prehistoric forest setting and had a vocabulary, or signaling, range into the dozens of words, well, gestures.

125 Million Years Ago

Expanded Limbic System, reward circuitry

The Last Stegosaurus: Wuerhosaurus

Wuerhosaurus was one of the last known stegosaurs, carrying the classic plated-and-spiked body plan into the Early Cretaceous of what is now China.

110 Million years ago (+/- 10 million)

Redwood Lineage Emerges

This picture was taken in Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve near Guerneville, California. When Melissa and I stood under Parson Jones on February 2, 2026, we were standing beneath a long lineage that began while Tyrannosaurus still walked the Earth.

~95 Million Years Ago (+/- 5 million)

Tall, fire-resistant, long-lived conifer specialization.

Zuniceratops

A smaller, earlier horned dinosaur that helps show the transition toward the larger, more elaborate ceratopsids.

Lived from about 90 to 89 million years ago.

Triceratops ancestor

Hesperornithiformes Birds Emerge (Now Extinct)

~90 Million years ago.

Neornithes (Crown Birds) emerge

Three branches of modern birds evolved from within neornithes: Struthio camelus (the ostrich), Gallus gallus (chickens), and Passer domesticus (the house sparrow is a good one).

~90 Million years ago (+/- 10 million).

Palaeognathae Birds Emerge

Palaeognathae is the living bird branch that includes ostriches, emus, cassowaries, rheas, kiwis, and tinamous.

~85 Million years ago (+/- 10 million).

Ground birds: ostriches, emus, tinamous, etc.

Appendix

80 Million BCE

Higher Play Evolves in Social Mammals

80 Million Years Ago (+/- 10 million years)

Enlarged neocortex

Galloanserae Birds Emerge (from Neognathae)

Galloanserae is the living bird branch that includes landfowl and waterfowl: chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, and swans.

~80 Million years ago (+/- 8 million).

Fowl: chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, etc.

Neoaves Birds Emerge (from Neognathae)

~78 Million years ago (+/- 4 million).

Led to common birds: crows, sparrows, robins, hawks, owls, hummingbirds, etc.

Tyrannosaurus Rex

T. rex lived in western North America about 69 to 66 million years ago. All dinosaurs, except potentially three lines of bires, went extinct 66 million years ago, when the Chicxulub asteroid hit.

Lived from 69 to 66 million years ago.

Triceratops

Three facial horns, broad frill, and powerful four-legged body. It was one of the last great non-avian dinosaurs and is the classic fully developed ceratopsid most people picture when they think of horned dinosaurs. Lived from about 68 to 66 million years ago.

Lived from 68 to 66 million years ago.

Purgatorius — Earliest known proto-primate.

Purgatorius unio, from the Late Paleocene of North America, believed to be the earliest primate, pencil drawing, digital coloring. © N. Tamura (CC BY-SA)

66 Million BCE

Grasping hand and flexible ankles

The Last Pterosaurs

By the end of the Cretaceous, the surviving pterosaurs were mostly advanced, toothless pterodactyloids.

66 Million years ago (K–Pg extinction)

The Last Ornithischians

The last ornithischians still displayed four striking body plans at the end of the Cretaceous: horned ceratopsians, duck-billed hadrosaurs, armored ankylosaurs, and dome-headed pachycephalosaurs.

66 Million years ago (K–Pg extinction)

The Last Theropods

The last theropods still ranged from giant apex predators to smaller runners and hunters, while birds overhead carried the theropod branch beyond the extinction event.

66 Million years ago (K–Pg extinction)

The Last Sauropods

By the end, sauropods had narrowed to one last great branch—titanosaurs—but that branch still held real variety.

66 Million years ago (K–Pg extinction)

Opposable Thumb Emerges

60 Million Years Ago

Plesiadapis: First fruit-insect eaters.

56 Million BCE (+/- 2 million)

Enhanced color perception, Diet-driven brain growth

Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean

Fama Clamosa, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

56 Million BCE

Early Self-Awareness: Miacis

"<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81286073" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Miacis cropped</a>" by Remove 'cropped' from file name and see original file is licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>

50 Million BCE

Territory memory, where things are, hippocampus development

Ape Thumb Evolves

Gorilla on right, human, then orangutan. Orangutan-like hands evolved about 30 mya, gorilla-like hands evolved about 12 mya, and human-like hands evolved about 3 mya.

32 Million Years Ago (+/- 2 million)

Early Intelligence Emerges: Aegyptopithecus zeuxis

30 Million BCE

Complex Brains; Long-Term Memory; Complex Sentience; Semi Self-awareness settles in.

Baboons Branch Off: Old World Monkeys

"<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/88123769@N02/9439127803" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Baboons</a>" by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/88123769@N02" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bernard Spragg</a> is licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC CC0 1.0</a>

27 Million Years Ago (+/- 2 million)

Large neocortex, Coalition politics emerge

Genus Proconsul (Self-Awareness Settles)

20 Million Year Ago (+/- 2 Million Years)

Complex Brains; Long-Term Memory; Complex Sentience; Maybe Self-aware; Likely Simple EI.

Gibbons Branch Off: Genus Hylobates

Today, there are about 20 species of gibbons which belong to the family Hylobatidae, which is further divided into four genera: Hylobates (the largest group, including the white-handed gibbon), Hoolock (hoolock gibbons), Nomascus (crested gibbons), and Symphalangus (the siamang).

17 Million Years Ago, ± 1 million

Long-distance pair bonding, Fine motor control

Animal Vocabulary: Thousands of Words (The Great Apes)

Rudapithecus hungaricus in their natural environment from about 11 million years ago. These early great apes likely lived in a lush forest setting and had a vocabulary, or signaling, range into the thousands of words, well, gestures, grunts, and screams in various contexts.

circa 15 Million Years Ago

Inferior frontal gyrus homologues, Mirror neuron systems

Orangutans Branch Off: Genus Sivapithecus